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TESTING DEVICES -PURPOSE AND USES
Unit Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Psychological Test
1.3.1 Meaning of Psychological Test
1.3.2 Need for Psychological Test
1.3.3. Limitations of Psychological Test
1.4 Intelligence Test, Aptitude Test and Attitude Test
1.4.1 Intelligence Test
1.4.2 Aptitude Test
1.4.3 Attitude Test
1.5 Interest Test, Achievement Test, Personality Test
1.5.1 Interest Test
1.5.2 Achievement Test
1.5.3 Personality Test
1.6 Summary
1.7 Questions
1.8 References
1.1 OBJECTIVES
The following are the objectives of this unit:
• to understand the nature of psychological tests
• to realise the limitations of a psychological test
• to differentiate between aptitude and attitude test
• to understand the nature and scope of interest tests
• to gain knowledge of the functioning of personality test
• to comprehend achievement test
• to evaluate intelligence test
1.2 INTRODUCTION
The education in any country aims at developing an individual at his/her
fullest potentialities. The var ious activities are conducted in the schools
and colleges to achieve this aim. Guidance is one of the important munotes.in
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activities at school level. Good education and good guidance are
interrelated. They support and complement each other for the students‟
benefit. The school guidance programme occupies prominent position
because . It recognizes the right capabilities of an individual to make
decision a plan. It recognizes the uniqueness of the individual It
recognizes and respect the worth and dignity of the individual. It is
therefore very important to assess an individual or a gr oup so that a proper
guidance programme can be planned. The various tools and techniques are
used for the assessment of an individual‟s competencies. The tools are
commonly used are discussed in the following paragraph.
1.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST
What is a psychological test? This seems to be a difficult question to
answer when one examines the plethora of published tests in the market
and finds that they can differ in so many respects. While some
psychological tests take only a few minutes to complete, othe rs can take
hours to administer. For some psychological tests, a respondent is required
to provide only a simple yes/no answer; other tests are designed in such a
way that a person has to navigate and respond in a virtual reality
environment. Some psycholo gical tests can be administered to hundreds
of people at one time and scored and interpreted by a computer, but other
tests require face -to-face administration and individual scoring and
interpretation that require years of training and experience. Despite the
above wide -ranging differences, all psychological tests are considered to
have one thing in common; that is, they are tools that psychologists use to
collect data about people .
1.3.1 Meaning of Psychological Test :
More specifically, a psychological test is an objective procedure for
sampling and quantifying human behaviour to make an inference about a
particular psychological construct using standardised stimuli, and methods
of administration and scoring. In additio n, to demonstrate its usefulness, a
psychological test requires appropriate norms and evidence (i.e.,
psychometric properties). To elaborate, the defining characteristics of
psychological tests and their associated advantages are discussed below.
First, a psychological test is a sample of behaviour that is used to make
inferences about the individual in a significant social context. The
behaviour sample may be considered complete in itself or, as is more often
the case, as a sign of an underlying dispositio n that mediates behaviour.
For example , a psychological test that is used to decide whether an
individual will be able to understand instructional material to be used in
job training. The test for this purpose may consist of sample passages from
the dail y newspaper.
The test taker‟s task is to read each of the passages and report their
meanings. If comprehension of most of the passages is accurate, the test
taker can be judged to read well enough for the purposes of the job. As munotes.in
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long as the difficulty le vel of the passages approximates that of the
instructional material, the test provides a basis for inferring adequate
performance in training. In a clinical setting, a test may provide a sample
of the behaviour that the client finds disturbing.
For exampl e, a client may suffer an irrational fear of an object that is not
actually dangerous, such as harmless spiders. As a result of the fear, the
client cannot enter a darkened room or clean out cupboards because of the
likelihood of confronting a spider.
To assess the magnitude of the irrational fear, the tester may ask the client
to approach a harmless spider being held in a glass case. The distance
from the spider that induces a report of anxiety is taken as an indication of
the severity of the client‟s av oidance behaviour. This can be used to judge
the effectiveness of any subsequent planned intervention to reduce the
problem. After treatment the client should be able to approach the spider
more closely than before. In both of these cases, the sample of be haviour
is complete in itself, in that it assesses directly what the tester wants to
know; namely, comprehending common passages of English text or
avoiding an object of a phobia.
The samples could be used, however, as the basis for indirect inferences,
by arguing that each in its own way reflects an underlying disposition that
is responsible for the individual‟s behaviour. Thus, the comprehension test
might be used to infer the individual‟s level of general mental ability or
intelligence, and the avoidan ce test may be used to infer the individual‟s
level of neuroticism; that is, the likelihood that they will suffer an anxiety
disorder.
In these cases, the content of the particular sample is incidental and can be
replaced by a different sample that is al so thought to reflect the
disposition. Thus, a sample of mathematical problem solving could be
substituted for the test of verbal comprehension as a sign of general mental
ability, or a set of questions about episodes of anxiety and depression may
be subst ituted for the avoidance test as a sign of the individual‟s level of
neuroticism. Such substitution would make no sense if the tests were being
used as a sample rather than a sign.
1.3.2 Need for Psychological Test :
Identifies Weaknesses and Strengths: Norm - referenced and group -
administered achievement tests are the most common types
administered in schools.
Supports Individualized Lesson Plans: Psychological testing in
schools can identify students with disabilities or delayed skills and
determine the ir eligibility for receiving individualized lesson plans
free of charge to families.
Enables Placement Decisions
Monitors Progress munotes.in
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Identifying Disabilities: Learning disabilities can be very hard to
identify, but psychological testing helps in detecting a reas in which
students are having difficulties.
Advancement: Psychological testing is also important in helping the
school administration and teachers to evaluate students‟ academic
achievements and make decisions about their advancement.
Vocational Ability: The results of a psychological test can also assist
parents, teachers and students ascertain the vocational ability of the
child.
1.3.3 Limitations of Psychological Test :
Uncertainty of Measurements :
Because psychological tests are attempting to measure things that are not
directly observable, there is always going to be a gap between what a test
is attempting to measure and what it actually measures.
Changing Circumstances :
As time goes on, because of changes in psychological theories and
advancements in technology, psychological tests only remain relevant for
a time. Social or cultural changes can lead to test items becoming obsolete,
or new psychological theories may replace the founding theories of the
tests. To remain valid and reliable , psychological tests must be updated
often.
Cultural Bias :
Because all widely used psychological test instruments in the United
States were standardized in English, test results are often not accurate for
people who speak another language. Even when test s are translated into
native languages, problems occur with words that have multiple meanings
and idioms specific to one language or culture.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the meaning of Psychological Test?
1.4 INTELLIGENCE TEST, APTITUDE TEST AND ATTITUDE TEST
1.4.1 Intelligence Test :
The most common type of intelligence test is the Intelligence Quotient, or
IQ. This test does not test specific knowledge. Instead, the questions are
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learn. Subjects are asked to answer questions and complete tasks. The tests
are a ratio of ability to chronological age, with 100 being normal. The
results are used often in education, commonly when students need to be
placed for special servi ces. Occasionally, employers might use these tests
as well.
Intelligence is a general capacity or potential for learning. According to
Cleary, Humphrey‟s Kendrick and Wesman (1975) „intelligence is the
entire repertoire of acquired skills, knowledge, learning sets and
generalization tendencies considered intellectual in nature that are
available at any one period in time‟. Thus , it can be said that intelligence
includes probl em –solving ability, verbal ability, and social competence.
Jensen (1985) suggested that the standard tests of intelligence reflect
individual differences in the speed and efficiency to basic cognitive
processes more than they reflect differences in the i nformation content to
which test takers have been exposed. Eg. Cognitive ability test, differential
aptitude test (DAT). The differential aptitude test has eight subjects verbal
reasoning (VR), numerical ability (NA), abstract reasoning (AR), clerical
speed and accuracy (CSA), mechanical reasoning (MR) space relations
(SR), spelling (SP) and Language usage (LU), Here, VR + NA interpreted
as a measure of general scholastic aptitude. The sub scores on DAT
predict the different abilities of an individual.
Uses :
It helps teacher to decide on instructional material to be used in the
class or for an individual.
It can be used in forecasting of future area of study or career.
It can be used in vocational. Educational, personal guidance.
It can be also used f or selecting an individual for a job.
Limitations
Intelligence measures are not very stable in childhood.
Specialized training required for administering the test.
1.4.2 Aptitude Test :
Aptitude tests differ from IQ tests because though they are testin g ability,
they are testing specific abilities in specific areas. According to
Psychometric Success, there are over 5,000 different aptitude tests on the
market. Some test only one specific skill set and some test a variety.
Aptitude tests look for strengt hs in numbers, verbal strengths, mechanics
and other areas. These tests are often timed, and used for a more specific
purpose, like job placement or college admission. The SAT and ACT
would be considered aptitude tests.
Aptitude is thought of as a natural tendency, special ability, or capacity or
cluster of abilities. Often these natural abilities are looked at an munotes.in
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relationship to a person‟s readiness to learn or their suitability for a
particular career.
For example, in order to be successful architect, one most possess the
cluster of abilities such as a keen sense of observation, a sense of aesthetic
visual memory, abstract reasoning, and an ability to sketch free hand. So,
aptitude may be defined as a trait that charac terizes an individual‟s ability
to perform in a area or to acquire the learning necessary for performance
in a given area. It presumes an inherent or native ability that can be
developed to its maximum through learning or other experiences.
However, it can not be expanded beyond a certain point, even by learning.
Although that may be a debatable concept, it is stated here as a basis on
which aptitude tests are developed. In theory, then, an aptitude test
measures the potential of one to achieve in a given ac tivity or to learn to
achieve in that activity.
Aptitude tests may potentially be used by counsellors and others because
They may identify potential abilities of which the individual is not
aware;
They may encourage the development of special or potential abilities of
a given individual.
They may provide information to assist on individual in making
educational and career decisions or other choices between competing
alternatives;
They may serve as an aid in predicting the level of academic or
vocational success on individual might anticipate; and
They may be useful in grouping individuals with similar aptitudes for
development and other educational purposes.
Types of Aptitude Tests :
There are di fferent types of aptitude tests. Some of them are single
aptitude tests like tests of mechanical aptitude, clerical aptitude, teaching
aptitude, musical aptitude and so on. Such tests covering a group of related
abilities are necessary for performing in an occupation like becoming a
mechanic, clerk, teacher, musician etc. Another type of aptitude test is
work sample aptitude test. It requires the individual to perform all or part
of a given job under the conditions that exist on the job. An example of a
work sample test for the job of automobile mechanic is to repair a faulty
carburettor . Besides this, there are differential tests Batteries as well.
A commonly known differential Aptitude Tests (DAT). Bennett, Seashore
and Wesman (1984) battery consists of eight subtests of verbal reasoning,
numerical reasoning abstract reasoning, spatial reasoning, clerical speed
and accuracy, mechanical reasoning, language usage, spelling, grammar
occupations. Such test batteries can give comprehensive information about
the relative picture of the student‟s specific abilities.
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Administration of total battery can prove to be costly in terms of time but
one can make selective use of certain sub tests. For example, a student
trying to explore whether s/he will have the requir ed aptitude to go to
engineering, may not be required to take tests like clerical speed, language
usage, grammatical or verbal reasoning tests but may be required to take
numerical abstract and spatial reasoning tests. Most of the batteries of tests
availa ble for assessment of aptitude at school stage are in the form of test
batteries consisting of the underlying abilities required for success in
different occupations rather than direct assessment of job aptitudes.
Caution in the use of Aptitude Test Data:
It is important that counsellors select and use aptitude tests carefully,
keeping in view the student‟s / clients‟ needs. If aptitude test data
must be used, it should be used along with previous achievement data,
present interests, leisure time acti vities and work habits etc. in order to
guide the students into various occupational possibilities.
The aptitude test samples certain abilities of the individual and helps
to find what he/she can do now and how well it can be done further.
On the basis of present performance, estimate of his/her future
achievement is inferred which is in terms of probability only.
It may also be kept in mind that aptitude tests score only provide leads
or suggestions or to help in career planning and do not automatically
match individuals to suitable courses or studies, and occupations.
These are factors like willingness, hard work, that contribute to or
one‟s success in a career which are not measured by aptitude tests.
1.4.3 Attitude Test :
Attitudes are expressions of h ow much we like or dislike various things.
We tend to approach and seek out to be associated with things we like, we
avoid, shun or reject things we do not like. Attitude represents our
evaluations and performance towards a wide variety of objects, events,
persons, and situations. The defining characteristics of attitudes is that
they express evaluations along the lines of liking -disliking, pro -anti,
favouring - disfavouring or positive - negative. By restricting the term
attitude to evaluation, we distingu ish attitudes from beliefs or opinions.
Attitude includes certain aspects of personality as interests, appreciations
and social conduct. Attitudes are learnt, they are adopted. They have
aspects as directions, intensity etc. in the following section we wil l know
how attitudes tested.
Types of Attitude Scales :
Attitudes need to be tested because our social life depends on some
desirable attitudes. The successes in certain vocations also depends on
some attitudes. Attitudes can be tested through various techniques.
Various scaling techniques have led to the devel opment of different types
of attitude scales which provide quick and convenient measure of
attitudes. However, the „method of equal appearing intervals‟ and „method munotes.in
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of summative ratings‟ have been extensively used in attitude or opinion
research.
The att itude scales which are developed using these scaling techniques
consists of a number of carefully edited and selected items called
statements . The method of „equal - appearing intervals‟ was originally
developed by Thurstone and Chave. The attitude score o f an individual
obtained by this method has an absolute interpretation in terms of the
psychological continuum of scale value of the statements making up the
sale.
If this score falls in the middle range of the psychological continuum, the
attitude of th e individual is described as “neutral”. If it falls towards the
favourable end of the continuum, it is described as “favourable” and if it
falls towards the unfavourable ends, it is described as “unfavourable”. In
the “method” of summated ratings developed by Likert, the item sore is
obtained by assigning arbitrary weights of 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 for Strongly
Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (U), Disagree (D) and Strongly
Disagree (SD) for the statements favouring a point of view. On the other
hand, the scoring weights of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are used for the respective
responses for statements opposing this point of view. An individual‟s
score on a particular attitude scale is the sum of his rating on all the items.
In addition to the above two scales, there some more techniques, such as,
Error Choice Technique, Free Response Technique , Paired Comparisons,
Opinion Polling or Surveying, diaries, auto -biographic etc. used for testing
attitude.
Uses :
Attitude scales are used to measure the degree of positive or nega tive
feeling associated with any slogan, person, institution, religion, political
party etc. Attitude scales are also used in public opinion surveys in order
to make some important and crucial decisions. Educationists, for example,
conduct opinion surveys to find out how people feel about educational
issues.
Check Your Progress
1. Write a short note on Aptitude Test
2. Discuss the Attitude Test
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1.5 INTEREST TEST, ACHIEVEMENT TEST AND PERSONALITY TEST
1.5.1 Interest Test :
Interest assessments usually ask you a series of questions about what you
like and don't like to do. Then they match your likes and dislikes to
careers. When you choose a career that matches your overall interests ,
you're more likely to enjoy your job.
Your inte rests can tell you more on who you are and what suits you. They
provide information necessary for making the right career choice.
Obviously, your interests indicate what you like and what occupations
interest you. If the profession you choose connects with these interests,
you will find a lot more pleasure in your work.
Interests tests help you define your interests and determine what you like
most. This could help you when making a career choice.
Most interest tests provide you with a list of two activities at a time. You
then indicate which of these activities appeals to you the most. Based upon
your choices, a result with your strongest interests is reported. Sometimes
statements are given, for which you indicate whether they apply to you or
not.
Uses :
It gives idea about liking of students for activities, subjects etc. which
is helpful teacher indecision making.
It motivates individual to action
It provides valuable information to counselor
It helps in guiding students with unrealistic expectations from self.
It helps to take better decision for occupation.
Limitation s:
One cannot rely on scores on interest forever because preferences,
liking may change. Intensity of interest vary.
Inter est inventory can be affected by the ambiguity of questions
asked.
Interest inventories are not very satisfactory in predicting job success,
job satisfaction, personality, and adjustment and academic success.
1.5.2 Achievement Test :
Achievement test is most probably the very important area of appraisal for
a guidance programme for the benefit of the individual. Scores on munotes.in
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achievement test are excellent means for evaluating educational
(academic) attainments and for the individual in the concerned area of t he
subject covered by the test. It involves a determination of how quickly,
how accurately and at what level an individual can perform the tasks taken
to represent accomplishment.
Achievement test measures present proficiency, mastery and
understanding of general and specific areas of knowledge. Achievement
tests attempt to measure what and how individual has learnt, viz. his
present standard of performance. Scores of achievement test indicate the
academic status of the individual learner in different subj ects as a whole or
individually.
Achievement test scores are quite helpful clues for vocational guidance
since these mostly related to aptitudes and interests. In the circumstances
the achievement test should be based on systematic testing programme of
every school that desires to undertake suitable guidance service for the
individuals.
Types of Achievement Test:
Achievement tests can be of various categories basing on form, purpose,
time, method and subject area. Achievement test can be of different forms
like oral test, written test and practical test. Items of achievement test can
be essay type questions or short answer questions or objective type of
questions or combination of all these types.
Achievement test may be of different types on the basis of the purpose for
which it is administered. They are diagnostic tests, prognostic test,
accuracy test, power test, spit test etc. Achievement tests can be
administered in different period of time. When it is based on time or
period factor, the test is summative test, daily test, weekly test, fortnightly
test, monthly test, quarterly test, half yearly test, annual test or final
examination at the end of course of study of an academic year.
On the ba sis of content or subject matter, achievement tests are
categorized as language test, reading test, spelling test, history test,
geography test, mathematic test, science test etc. Broadly speaking, all
these achievement tests can be divided into two on the basis of quality that
is standardized test and teacher made test. Here let us have a discussion on
the objective type of achievement test.
The traditional system of examination or the essay type of examination has
come under heavy fire. Students reject i t because of its heavy strength or
pressure. The parents criticize it because of its injurious effect on the
physical and mental health of children.
The teachers complain because of its harmful effect on school work. The
practical psychologist speaks ill of it because of its unreliability and munotes.in
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invalidity and the educational theorist attacks it because it lacks
definiteness in aim and purpose.
To remove some of the evils of the essay type examinations, objective
tests seem to be very useful. Modern educatio nists give much stress on this
type of tests to supplement the traditional type of tests. The All India
Council for Secondary Education has set up an “evaluation unity.”
Many workshops and seminars have been organised during the past 10
years with a view to preparing new type tests. The services of Dr. Bloom
of America, an expert in evaluation were secured for some time for the
purpose of popularizing the new type of tests and given training to a large
number of teachers in the use of these tests.
Classif ication of standardized achievement test , the standardized
achievement tests are classified into i) standardized performance tests ii)
Standardised diagnostic tests. Iii) Criterion -reference standardized
achievement test. Performance tests measure the stud ent‟s achievement in
a single subject. Diagnostic tests are constructed to identify the student‟s
learning difficulties.
Criterion -referenced tests have been deliberately constructed tests have
been deliberately constructed to yield measurement that are d irectly
interpretable in terms of specific performance standards.
Uses :
It helps is provide information about the extent of learning and the rate
of learning.
It gives the relative performance of an individual in a class.
It helps to identify strengths and weakness of student in various
subjects.
Limitation :
Teacher made achievement tests are unable to provide correct
information.
There are other factors like motivation, fatigue, mood which can
influence the achievement .
They are not very reliable in predicting job success, job satisfaction.
They give picture of only cognitive development. It does not give any
idea about emotional quotient and other personality traits.
1.5.3 Personality Test :
Personality can be defined as the individual‟s unique pattern of traits; the
pattern that distinguishes him as an individual and amounts for his unique
and relatively consistent way of interacting with his environment. The
tools used to study and understand personality are a s follows: munotes.in
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Structured self-reporting inventory
Problem checklists
General adjustment inventory
Auto biography
Sociometric peer perception
Cumulative records
Projective tests
Uses :
It helps to understand individuals
It provides information about individual
The information can be used by teacher to develop an individual
personality at its fullest. Limitations
Most tests have inadequate norms
Trained qualified person only should interpret the information.
Check Your Progress :
1. What is meant by Interest Test? Where can it be used?
1.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we have studies the testing devices to know the intelligent,
interest, achievement, aptitude, attitude and personality of an individual
which is helpful to you to guide an individual on the basis of the data.
1.7 QUESTIONS
1 Write the uses of any two-testing devise in guidance with example.
2 Write short notes on: a) Types of Achievement test b) Types of
Interest test
3 Discuss the need for Psychological Test.
4 Differentiate between aptitude test and attitude test.
5 Discuss in det ail about the Psychological Test.
1.8 REFERENCES munotes.in
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Bhatnagar, A. and Gupta, N.: Guidance and Counselling Vol. I – A
Theoretical Perspective. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1999.
Crow, L. and Crow, A.: Introduction to Guidance. New Delhi: Eurasia,
1962.
Geldard, K. and Geldard, D.: Counselling Children: A Practical
Introduction, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1997.
Gibson, R.L. and Mitchell, M.H.: Introduction to Counselling and G uidance,
New Jersey: Merill Prentice Hall, 1995.
Gupta, Manju: Effective Guidance and Counselling Modern Methods and
Techniques. Jaipur: Mangal Deep Publication, 2003
Jaiswal, S.R.: Guidance and Counselling. Lucknow: Lucknow
Prakashan,1985 Kochhar, S.K .: Guidance in Indian Education. New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers,1984. Koshy, Johns: Guidance and Counselling. New
Delhi: Dominant Publisher,2004. Mittal, M.L.: Kariyar Nirdeshan Avem
Rojgar Suchana. Meerut: International Publication House, 2004. Myer s,
G.E.: Principles and Techniques of Vocational Guidance. London:McGraw
Hill Book Company, 1941.
Pal, H.R. & Sharma, M.: Education of Gifted. New Delhi: Kshipra
Publication, 2007.
Pal, H.R. and Pal,A.: Education of Learning Disabled. New Delhi: Kshipra
Publication, 2007.
Rao, S. Narayana: Counselling and Guidance and Elementary School. New
Delhi: Anmol Prakashn, 2002.
Sharma, R.A.: Fundamentals of Guidance and Counselling. Meerut: R. Lall
Book Depot, 2001.
Sharma, Tarachand: Modern Methods of Guidance and Counselling. New
Delhi: Swarup & Sons., 2002.
Shrivastava, K.K.: Principles of Guidance and Counselling. New Delhi:
Kaniska Publication, 2003.
Singh, Raj: Educational and Vocational Guidance. New Delhi: Common
Wealth Publishers, 1994.
Taneja, V.R.: First Course in Guidance and Counselling. Chandigarh:
Mohindra Capital, 1972.
Vashist, S.R.: Vocational Guidance and Elementary School. New Delhi
https://johnparankimalil.wordpress.com/
Kochar S. K. (1985) Educational Guidance and Counselling.
Dandekau W. N. (1976) Evaluation and measurement in Education.
http://lib.oup.com.au/he/psychology/samples/shum_psychologicalassessmen
t_sample.pdf
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2
NON TESTING TECHNIQUES: USES AND
PROCEDURE
Unit Structure
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Non-Testing Techniques
2.4 Interview
2.5 Case Study
2.6 Cumulative Record
2.7 Anecdotal Record
2.8 Diary Record Method
2.9 Student Portfolio
2.10 Summary
2.11 Questions
2.12 References
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit, the students will be able to:
• state the meaning of an interview and parts of an interview
• discuss the different types of interviews
• explain the steps of an interview
• discuss the advantages of an interview
• discuss the limitations of an interview
• state the different types of observation
• state the importance of a diary
• explain the meaning of case study
• describe the importance of case study in guidance
• discuss the uses & limitations of anecdotal record
• understand the need for student portfolio
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Children come into the world genetically endowed with all their human
potential for growing, developing and learning. You, as a teacher have an munotes.in
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exciting opportunity to become part of a team of adults interacting with
young children and stimulating the deve lopment of their human potential
through’ careful and thoughtful guidance techniques. A child’s natural
endowment requires a rich environment and thoughtful nurturing and
guidance if the human potential contained in each child so to reach full
bloom and co ntribute fully to improving the quality of human life.
Guidance is one of the means employed by educationists to develop the
human potential. The child learns from a teacher not only mastery over a
particular subject, but also develops proper values, attit udes and habits.
2.3 NON-TESTING TECHNIQUES
Guidance is the help given by one person to another in making choices and
adjustments and in solving problems. Guidance aims at aiding the
recipient to grow in independence and ability to be responsible for one ’s
own self. It is a service that is universal – not confined to the school or the
family. It is found in all sectors of life – in the home, in business and
industry, in government, in social life, in hospitals and in prisons; indeed,
it is present wherever there are people who need help and who provide
help.
The techniques which are generally employed by guidance workers for
collecting basic data about a person are either standardized or non -
standardized ones. The non -standardized t echniques are case study,
interview, rating scales, questionnaire, observation, sociometry,
biography, cumulative record, and anecdotal records. The standardized
techniques are tools of measuring interests, intelligence, aptitudes and
personality traits. B oth the categories of techniques are used in getting
primary data. All the techniques are useful. The only consideration which
the guidance worker should keep in mind is that the techniques employed
should give reliable and objective information. Standardi zed tests of
intelligence, interests and aptitudes provide reliable and valid information.
They are reusable, less time consuming and can be scored easily. Non -
standardized techniques used in the study of human beings are also
helpful, and sometimes give m ore useful information than that given by
standardized tests.
For example , autobiography which is a non -standardized technique does
provide clues and insights into the emotional problems of a person as well
as hopes and aspirations. Similarly, case study helps the counsellor in
understanding the whole individual. The use of a technique, however,
depends upon what the guidance worker wants to get out of it.
Non-testing techniques in guidance refer to those techniques which do not
involve a test. Therefore , many tests like aptitude test, achievement test,
interest inventory, and personality tests are not part of it. Non -testing
techniques are also called as non -standardized techniques. Furthermore,
these techniques have common usage for individual analysis b y
counsellors. Also, the employment of these setting is in various settings. munotes.in
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Non-testing techniques in guidance provide a broader and much more
subjective approach to data gathering and interpretation. Moreover, the
various types of non -testing techniques are the questionnaire, observation,
autobiography, anecdotal record, case study, cumulative record,
interviews, and checklist. However, the most important among them are
the case study, interview, and checklist.
Check Your Progress
1. What are non -testin g techniques?
2.4 INTERVIEW
Introduction Students’ answers on tests don’t always show their true level
of understanding. Sometimes they understand more than their answers
indicate, and sometimes, despite their regurgitating the correct words, they
don’t understand what they write. Th e interview discusses a method to
probe what they actually understand.
Meaning :
Face to face personal conference, in which the required information is
obtained directly from an individual.
An interview is a conversation with a purpose. According to Bingham and
Moore, it is a serious conversation directed toward a definite purpose other
than satisfaction in the interview itself. The purposes for which interviews
are arranged are introductory, fact finding, evaluative, informative and
therapeutic in nature. Another characteristic is the relationship between the
interviewer and the interviewee. The occasion should be used for a
friendly informal talk, the interviewee should be allowed to talk in a
permissive atmosphere with confidence and freedom.
Parts of an Interview
Developing rapport & Clarifying purpose
Data gathering
Summarizing different types of interviews differ with respect to the
purpose that is kept in view.
If the purpose is to select a candidate for a post, it is an employment
interview, but if the purpose is to gather some facts or verify them it will
be called a fact-finding interview. So, the interviews are classified on the
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relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee. Sometimes it is
the form of the interview that determines its type.
Types of interv iews:
1. Employment Interview: The purpose of a fact-finding interview is
the verification of facts and data collected from other sources.
2. Fact-Finding Interview: The purpose of a fact-finding interview is
the verification of facts and data collected from other sources.
3. Diagnostic interview: The purpose of a diagnostic interview is
remediation. A effort made by the interviewer to diagnose the
problem of the interviewee and find out symptom s. Necessary
information is collected to help the interviewee in solving a problem.
4. Counseling Interview: The purpose of a counseling interview is to
provide an insight, a suggestion, or a piece of advice to the
interviewer. The counsel ing session begi ns with the work of
collecting information and proceeds with guidance and finally ends
with psychological treatment of the problem.
5. Groups Vs. ‘Individual Interviews: When several persons are
interviewed in a group such an interview is known as a group
interview, but basically all group interviews are individual interviews
because it is not the group that is interviewee. The purpose behind a
group interview is collecti ng information and the knowledge of
common problems facing the group. In the individual interview the
emphasis lies on the problems faced by the individual. Carl Rogers
holds a divergent view about an individual interview. He says that in
an individual int erview it is not the problem faced by the individual
which lies in the centre. The focus is on the individual himself. The
aim of an individual interview is not to solve one problem, but to help
the interviewee to grow so that he may cope with the present and with
problems that may arise in future in a better integrated manner.
6. Authoritarian Vs. Non -authoritarian Type: In the authoritarian
types of interview, the client and his problems are submerged and the
interviewer dominates the interview because of the elevated position
that he holds. The non -authoritarian rejects the authoritarian role. The
interviewee may still regard the interviewer as a man of authority, but
the interviewer does not act as an authoritarian. He accepts the
feelings of the clien t and does not reject them. He uses a variety of
techniques during the interview such as suggestion, persuasion,
advice, reassurance, interpretation and giving information.
7. Directive Vs. Non -directive Interviews: In the directive interview
the intervi ewer directs, shows the path through advice, suggestion,
persuasion or threat. But in a non -directive interview it is assumed
that the interviewee has the capacity to grow and develop. He has
complete freedom to express his feelings and emotions. The
interviewer does not try to probe into the past of the client, makes no
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8. Structured Vs. Unstructured interviews : In the structured interview
a definite set of questions is predetermined. The i nterviewer confines
himself to only those points which he decides to discuss in the
interview. In a structured interview definite questions are asked. In an
unstructured interview there is no such restriction. The interviewer is
free to give expression to his ideas. The subject to be discussed is not
determined in advance. The unstructured interview sometimes
provides an information which on the fact of it, may appear to be
trivial, but is extremely useful when and interpretation is made.
Method of Interv iew:
Using interviews to examine student understanding involves several steps
Identifying the goals of the interview . Before beginning to construct an
interview schedule, the interviewer needs to clarify the goals for the
interview. Designing an interview schedule of questions to be asked an
interview schedule is a set of directions for the interview, including
questions that the interviewer plans to ask, directions for how to follow -
up, and tasks to be posed during the course of an interview.
The schedule should include a core set of questions or tasks that will be
posed to every interviewee and a set of potential foll ow-up questions or
tasks – items whose use would depend on the interviewee’s initial set of
responses. The schedule should also include a plan for what the
interviewer will do under different circumstances. Piloting and revising
the interview schedule Just as for any assessment instrument, interview
schedules need to be piloted and revised based on the success of those
pilots in achieving the goals of the interview.
After conducting a pilot interview, ask questions such as:
Were the questions understood as intended?
Were the questions adequate catalysts for finding out about the
student’s understandings?
Were the planned follow -up questions useful?
Are there additional follow -up questions that should be included?
Was the sequence of questions appropriate for the purpose of the
interview? Preparing for and conducting the interviews
It is useful to prepare, before each round of interviews, an “interview box”
which contains a copy of the interview schedule, tapes, b atteries, an
accordion pocket folder for each interviewee, a pen, blank paper, graph
paper, a straightedge, and an appropriate calculator.
Knowing that needed supplies are ready allows to focus attentions on the
interview. Conducting the interviews conti nue to probe as long as the
probing seemed to produce additional information about the interviewee’s
understandings, ask the interviewees to share their rationales for each
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At every perceived opport unity as interviewees responded to these initial
questions, encourage them to talk openly and freely about their
understanding. When their answers contained phrasing that appeared to be
personal, probe to understand its meaning. When they made statements
that resembled the language of their textbook ask them to explain their
ideas in another way. When they made generalizations, ask them to give
instances and to explain them. Interviews like these were designed to
allow each student’s personal understandings to emerge.
Analy sing the results of the interviews :
When possible and reasonable, it is useful to watch interview tapes with a
colleague who is willing and able to engage in an in -depth discussion of
what the tapes seem to indicate about the interviewee’s understandings.
Advantages:
1. It is a widely used technique in guidance because personal data can be
more easily collected in much shorter time by using this technique.
2. It is very flexible. It is useful in almost all situations and with all people
having different backgrounds.
3. It serves a variety of purposes.
4. It has a great therapeutic value. An interview establishes a fa ce-to-face
relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee. The direct
relationship gives a great insight into t he problem faced by the client.
The interviewer gets about the client knowledge which has a great
therapeutic importance.
5. Interview is helpful in diagnosing a problem. it is very helpful in
revealing the causes of a problem faced by the client. Hence some
psychologists regard interviews a very useful technique for diagnoses
and remediation.
6. The face -to-face contact gives very useful clues about the client’s
personality. The facial expressions, gestures, postures convey meaning
and reveal feelings and atti tudes indirectly.
7. Interview is useful to the client also because it enables him to think
about the problem. It is the most useful situation in which the client
gets a better understanding of his ‘self; his abilities, skills, interests and
also of the worl d of work, its opening and their requirements.
8. Interview provides a choice to the client and the counselor to exchange
ideas and attitudes through conversation.
Limitations:
1. An interview is a subjective technique, It lacks objectivity in the
collection of data about the client. The bias and the prejudices of the
interviewer enter into his interpretation of the data collected through
an interview.
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3. The re sults of an interview are very difficult to interpret.
4. The usefulness of an interview is limited. The success of an interview
depends on the personality qualities of the interviewer, his preparation
for the interview and the way in which he interviews. If the interview
monopolises talking or does not listen patiently to what the client
says. The interview loses value.
Check Your Progress
2. Discuss the types of interviews
2. Write a note on advantages and limitations of interview method.
2.5 CASE STUDY
Every individual is a unique creation of nature. The individuals vary in
perceptions, interests, attitude, beliefs and so on. Many times, it becomes
essential to guide an individual separately and for that one must
understand the individual in totality. The method used to study an
individual or an institution in totality is a case study. The essential
elements of a ca se study are:
Diagnosis
treatment
follow -up Let’s study how a case method can be implemented
a) Symptoms: One must gather the information, which indicate that the
child is a problem case. This includes the information like
chronological age, marks obtaine d, instances of misconduct,
absenteeism, habits etc. It is very necessary to verify the information.
b) Examination: Collect more information about health, education,
psychology, family set up.
c) Health and physical history
d) School history
e) Family history
f) Social history and social contacts.
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On the basis of verification of the information collected the counselor
analyses and diagnose the problem. Then the treatment is decided on the
intensity of the problem. The follow -up is done continuously to study the
improvement in an individual.
Uses :
It helps in the individual guidance.
It gives in depth information about an individual
It can be sent in diagnosing the problem.
The information can be used to suggest remedies.
Limitations :
It should be carried out with great care
The information must be interpreted carefully.
The information verification is very necessary.
Check Your Progress
1. Elaborate on the case study method.
2.6 CUMULATIVE RECORD
It is a record of information concerned with the appraisal of an individual
student. The information which is obtained periodically through various
sources, techniques, tests, interviews, observations, case study and the
like, is assembled in a summary for m on a cumulative record card, so that
it may be used when the student needs advice for the solution of some
educational or vocational problem. The cumulative record has been
defined as “a method of recording, filing and using information essential
for the guidance of students”. A cumulative record card supplies
information on points such as the following:
a. Personal:
name,
date of birth,
place of birth,
sex,
colour,
residence.
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b. Home:
names of parents,
occupations of the parents,
parents alive or dead,
economic status,
number of siblings, older or younger,
language spoken at home.
c. Test scores:
general intelligence,
achievement,
other test scores, and
personality traits.
d. School attendance:
days present or absent each year,
schools attended with dates.
e. Health: record of physical disabilities, vaccination record, diseases
suffered from.
f. Miscellaneous:
vocational plans,
extracurricular activities,
employment during studies, and
counsellor’s note. If we analyse the items recorded on a cumulative
record card, we find that only such items are included as are
recorded in a case study.
Data collected through non -standardized techniques like checklists,
questionnaires, autobiographies do not find a place in the record card file.
It must be remembered that recording and filing of information are not as
important as using the information. N eed and Importance of Cumulative
Record The cumulative records about students provide useful information
to teachers, counsellors and administrators. The need and importance of
cumulative records in guidance are given below:
Importance in Guidance :
The ba sic principle and assumptions of guidance take into
consideration individual differences. Every individual differs from the
other in some psychological character, quality or trait. For example,
no two individuals are alike. They differ from each other as f ar as
interests, aptitudes and abilities are concerned. Cumulative records
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of professional assistance needed by individual students at various
stages of their development.
The cumulative record is a permanent history of the educational
development of the individual student. It indicates his/her attendance,
health, achievement and various other aspects of school life. Hence it
is useful in analysing the future needs of the in dividual student and
proper educational and occupational guidance can be offered on the
basis of his needs. For example, if it indicates the weaknesses in the
physical development of the student, steps to remove those
weaknesses can be suggested.
Importan ce in Teaching :
The cumulative record of an individual student indicates if the
achievements are in proportion to his/her mental abilities. If the
student is under achieving he/she can be guided as to what steps
he/she should take to remedy the defect.
The cumulative records of different students help the teacher in
classifying students in accordance with scholastic aptitudes and
mental abilities.
The cumulative records of different students of a class help the new
teacher in understanding the needs of s tudents.
They are diagnostic tools to analyse a behaviour problem or an
educational one. For example, why is a student backward in academic
performance? What steps can be taken to remove his/her
backwardness?
Cumulative records indicate to teachers about students who need
individual attention.
Cumulative records help the teachers in writing reports about
individual students, and the principal in writing a character certificate
most objectively.
Teachers can locate children needing special help and adjus t the
teaching accordingly.
For making case studies the cumulative record is very useful to
teachers, because there is some similarity of items collected.
Importance to Administrators :
Cumulative records give enough information to the juvenile courts,
probation officers for understanding the delinquent behaviour of a student.
The cumulative record is needed by teachers/counsellors for the same
reason as that a cumulative record is maintained by a physician. Records
maintained over a long period of time tell the story of growth and
deterioration of the client.
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The following are the characteristics of a good cumulative record:
1) Information gathered should be complete, comprehensive and
adequate so that valid inferences may be drawn. It should be more
comprehensive than the progress report. Since the record is a
permanent history of the educational growth of a student it should
give all types of relevant information needed by a teacher or a
guidance worker. For example, it should indicate the vocational plans,
the vocational choices, the assets and liabilities of the student needed
in vocational guidance.
2) Information recorded should be true and valid. Any information
received second -hand may have limited validity and reliability. Before
preparing a comprehensive model of a cumulative record, for
example, for a high school student who needs the guidance for a job,
it should be d ecided what items are needed for such a schedule. Like
other tools of measurement, a cumulative record can be valid only
when it measures what it intends to measure.
3) Information to be reliable should be collected by a number of teachers
and then compi led. The reliability of a cumulative record depends
upon the caution with which information on different aspects of
student growth are gathered and assembled. All information so
collected should come as a result of personal contact with the student,
not by one teacher but by a number of teachers, who come in close
contact with the student. Information received second -hand should be
verified.
4) A cumulative record should be re -evaluated from time -to-time.
5) A cumulative record should be objective and fr ee from personal
opinions and prejudices. If bias, likes and dislikes enter in the
collection of data, the record will be unreliable.
6) It should be usable. A cumulative record may be card type, folder type
or booklet type. The folder type cumulative re cords are more popular
because they permit the inclusion of comprehensive information about
the student.
Check Your Progress
1. Discuss the importance of cumulative records in teaching and
administration.
2.7 ANECDOTAL RECORD An anecdotal record contains short descriptive accounts about some events
regarding a student. Every account is a report of a significant episode in munotes.in
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the life of a student. It is a simple statement of an incident deemed by the
observer to be significant wit h respect to a given student. When such
reports describing, on the spot, some incidents are recorded so that they
may be of some significance, they are collectively known as an anecdotal
record. An anecdote may be compared to a snapshot of an isolated inci dent
of the behaviour of the student, which suggests some special significance.
Just as a camera catches the pose of an individual at a given time, similarly
the anecdote should report exactly the behaviour observed.
If we accept the uniqueness of the in dividual as a basic principle of
guidance, this word snapshot is of immense significance to us for guidance
purposes. An individual’s behaviour is always in response to some felt
need. For example, desire for affection or threat to his/her security may
cause him/her to show certain strange behaviour. A teacher should note it
down at once, i.e. he/she should have a word snapshot. Such word
snapshots written by as many teachers as they meet individual students, in
as many situations as possible, give a true p icture of the students’
behaviour pattern or his/her personality. Maintaining anecdotal records:
An anecdotal record is the result of observation by a teacher about the
specific behaviour of the student in a situation. It is written down to get a
better un derstanding of the student because the teacher may forget the
incident if it is not written down.
The teacher writes down what s/he observes and does not give any
remarks. S/he may describe the behaviour and say something by way of
comment or s/he may de scribe the behaviour and suggest possible
remedial measures.
What to observe:
A proforma is supplied to each teacher to note down his/her observation. It
contains date, place, incident and remarks on the proforma supplied.
Directions to the teachers are given indicating that they must record the
child’s behaviour, by making their statements descriptive and specific to
avoid vague/general remarks. Their descriptions should be statements of
what happened, for example, came late by half an hour without an e xcuse
for previous day’s absence, did not obey instructions and showed defiance.
Areas to be noted down:
Haphazardly noting down bits of information serves no purpose. Hence, in
the proforma supplied, areas are clearly marked, on which observations
are to be made. An anecdotal record is a record with a purpose. For
example, a boy’s interest in industrial work may be exhibited by his article
on the visit to a local factory. A girl’s interest i n a literary magazine may
be indicative of her literary taste. A teacher can find many such
occurrences in the life of his/ her students, of which he/she has to make a
note. For example, a boy’s comment on a radio newscast is a good item
for an anecdotal r ecord if he is interested in studying the text for current
history. A girl’s comment on some recent scientific invention may show
her interest in science. An anecdotal record is of special interest in munotes.in
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understanding social and emotional behaviours. If a boy is found sitting
alone when all are rejoicing and making merry in a holiday excursion,
shows that he has some emotional problems.
Longitudinal Approach:
Only those anecdotal records are of any help to the guidance worker, in
which behaviours of an indi vidual are described over a long period of
time. Longitudinal anecdotal records maintained from the nursery school
to the high school are very useful. The anecdotal record file should not
contain irrelevant material. The file should be scrutinized from tim e-to-
time and irrelevant material may be removed. Anecdotal records
pertaining to all aspects of life should be maintained. Every teacher in the
school should be provided with forms to write down the incidents about
students as and when they occur.
A few basic considerations to be kept in mind are given below:
1) The form should be short and informal.
2) Reports should be of some significant episodes. The episode
described should show a marked tendency from the norm of the
individual or the group.
3) The anecdo tes should be written about all students and not just about
the high achiever or the problematic ones i.e., stereotypes.
4) The anecdotes should be the reports of the actual observations and
written just after the events.
5) A single incident is of no value.
6) Both positive and negative incidents of behaviour should be noted
down.
7) We should know what to look for, where to look for and how to
record.
Uses :
If properly used, it can provide a factual record of an observation of
single, significant incident in the pupil’s behaviour , which may be
useful for teacher in understanding growth, development of an
individual.
Useful in maintaining cumulative records.
Useful for counselor.
Limitations :
It is time consuming
It only gives facts & not causes.
It may be difficult for the observer to maintain objectivity.
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Check Your Progress
1. Discuss the anecdotal records.
2. What is the longitudinal approach in anecdotal records?
2.8 DIARY RECORD METHOD
Detailed observation of one child is usually for the purpose of comparison
with other data already at hand, and to determine the kinds of situations in
which he has difficulty. For this purpose, a running diary account of the
pupil’s behaviour is usually the most length of time and in a variety of
situations.
The elementary child may be watched in class, on the playground, in the
halls of the child, on the way home, and if possible in the home; the
secondary pupil, in the home -room, in various classes, during
examinations, in the study hall or library, at a club meeting, or in a child
dance, in the child criteria, and in games or sports with his peers.
Importance
Throws light on important and vital aspects of the personality.
Personal documents and contains the record of events, thoughts and
feelings.
Contains reflection of the emotions of an individual.
Writer freely and frankly expresses
Enters Comments
Describes details of the Situations.
Writes the interests and feeling s of the writer
For great person, it becomes an imp source of inf.
A Natural record
2.9 STUDENT PORTFOLIO
The portfolio demonstrates student progress in the mastery of the
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different teachers mentoring the student and the counsellor guiding the
student.
A portfolio is:
a visual show case of student work that demonstrates professional
growth, achievement, and competence in the field of clinical mental
health counseling and substance abuse/ behavioural addictions
counseling;
an instrument designed to facilitate self -reflection, self -improvement,
intrapersonal understanding, conceptual understanding, and skill
development; and
a tool used to document student philosophies of counseling as well as
understanding and application of the CACREP standards in the area
Clinical Mental Health and the 12 core functions of addiction
counsellors .
Importance :
Students are active participants in their learning as they collect, select,
reflect, and assess the work in their portfolios. Students learn to assess
their growth in the field of clinical mental health counseling and
substance abuse/ behavioural addictions counseling.
Faculty use portfolios as a tool to provide feedback to studen ts on
progress and performance standards.
Portfolios provide students with a visual representation of their
competencies as a counselor when seeking employment.
Portfolios document a student’s achievements in the Clinical
Counseling Program
Check your progress
1. Discuss the importance of diary record method.
2. Discuss the need for student’s portfolio.
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2.10 SUMMARY
Non-testing techniques in guidance refer to those techniques which do not
involve a test. Therefore, many tests like aptitude test, achievement test,
interest inventory, and personality tests are not part of it. Non-testing
techniques are also called as non-standardized techniques. Furthermore,
these techniques have common usage for individual analysis by
counsellor s. Also, the employment of these setting is in various settings.
Non-testing techniques in guidance provide a broader and much more
subjective approach to data gathering and interpretation. Moreover, the
various types of non-testing techniques are the questionnaire, observation,
autobiography, anecdotal record, case study, cumulative record,
interviews, and checklist. However, the most important among them are
the case study and interview.
2.11 QUESTIONS
1. What are non-testing techniques?
2. State and explain types of interviews?
3. 'Before beginning to construct an interview schedule, the interviewer
needs to clarify the goals for the interview.' Justify.
4. State and discuss the advantages and limitations of Interview method.
5. Discuss the importance and characteristics of Cumulative Record
method.
6. Short Note:
a. Case Study Method
b. Diary Record Method
c. Student's Profile Method
7. Discuss in brief Anecdotal Records method.
2.12 REFERENCES
Bhatnagar , A. and Gupta, N.: Guidance and Counselling Vol. I – A
Theoretical Perspective. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1999.
Crow, L. and Crow, A.: Introduction to Guidance. New Delhi: Eurasia,
1962.
Geldard, K. and Geldard, D.: Counselling Children: A Prac tical
Introduction, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1997.
Gibson, R.L. and Mitchell, M.H.: Introduction to Counselling and Guidance,
New Jersey: Merill Prentice Hall, 1995.
Gupta, Manju: Effective Guidance and Counselling Modern Methods and
Techniques. Jai pur: Mangal Deep Publication, 2003 munotes.in
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Jaiswal, S.R.: Guidance and Counselling. Lucknow: Lucknow
Prakashan,1985
Kochhar, S.K.: Guidance in Indian Education. New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers,1984.
Koshy, Johns: Guidance and Counselling. New Delhi: Dominant
Publisher,2004.
Mittal, M.L.: Kariyar Nirdeshan Avem Rojgar Suchana. Meerut:
International Publication House, 2004.
Myers, G.E.: Principles and Techniques of Vocational Guidance.
London:McGraw Hill Book Company, 1941.
Pal, H.R. & Sharma, M.: Education of Gifted. New Delhi: Kshipra
Publication, 2007.
Pal, H.R. and Pal,A.: Education of Learning Disabled. New Delhi: Kshipra
Publication, 2007.
Rao, S. Narayana: Counselling and Guidance and Elementary School. New
Delhi: Anmol Prakashn, 2002.
Sharma, R.A.: F undamentals of Guidance and Counselling. Meerut: R. Lall
Book Depot, 2001.
Sharma, Tarachand: Modern Methods of Guidance and Counselling. New
Delhi: Swarup & Sons., 2002.
Shrivastava, K.K.: Principles of Guidance and Counselling. New Delhi:
Kaniska Publi cation, 2003.
Singh, Raj: Educational and Vocational Guidance. New Delhi: Common
Wealth Publishers, 1994.
Taneja, V.R.: First Course in Guidance and Counselling. Chandigarh:
Mohindra Capital, 1972.
Vashist, S.R.: Vocational Guidance and Elementary Schoo l. New Delhi
https://johnparankimalil.wordpress.com/
http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/46271/1/Unit -5.pdf
https://www.ecu.edu/cs -dhs/da rs/upload/Portfolio -Instructions -MS-Clinical -
Counseling -2-2017.pdf
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3
CAREER GUIDANCE
Unit Structure
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Job Analysis
3.3.1 Concept of Job Analysis
3.3.2 Need for Job Analysis
3.4 Job Satisfaction
3.4.1 Concept of Job Satisfaction
3.4.2 Factors affection Job Satisfaction
3.5 Occupational Information
3.5.1 Concept of Occupational Information
35.2 Need for Occupational Information
3.6 Summary
3.7 Questions
3.8 References
3.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• define job analysis
• understand the need job analysis
• describe the importance of job analysis and job satisfaction
• analyse the concept of job satifaction
• understand the need of occupational information
• state the concept of occupational information
• describe the sources of occupational informatio n
• explain the methods of disseminating occupational information
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Man, and his work are linked up by job functions, job demands and job
satisfaction. There are number of jobs and occupations. The role of the
guidance worker is to analyse the job & give accurate occupational
information which helps to solve the problems in ch ecking of occupation
& get satisfaction. In this unit we will read above job analysis, it’s types,
purposes and uses, we will also read about occupational information, it’s
need & sources and dissemination of occupational information.
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3.3 JOB ANALYSIS
The vocational guidance; is related to the person’s aptitude and nature of
the job. In organizing vocational guidance two types of analysis is
required.
1. Identifying the person’s abilities, interests and other qualities.
2. Analysis of activities of jobs. Job analysis is concerned with tasks,
which are related to some professional and social activity.
3.3.1 Concept of Job Analysis:
Meaning of Job Analysis :
Job analysis has been defined as “the scientific study and statement of all
the facts about a job which reveals its content and modifying factors which
surround it.”
J. D. Hackett defines Job Analysis according to mental requirements,
physical requiremen ts and working conditions. Thus, a man may be rated
on the job according to his personality, physique, attitude etc.
Analysis has been defined ‘Ordway’ as “the scientific study and statement
of all the facts about a job which reveals its content and modifying factors
which surround it.”
J. D. Hackett defines Job Analysis according to mental requirements,
physical requi rements and working conditions. Thus, a man may be rated
on the job according to his personality, physique, attitude etc.
Characteristics of Job Analysis :
There are three essentials of Job Analysis.
1. The job must be accurately and completely identified.
2. The tasks of the job must be completely and accurately described.
3. The requirements of the job make upon the worker for successful
performance must be identified.
Types of Job Analysis :
According to F Meine, job analysis can be classified into four types with
respect to purpose -
1. Job Analysis for the purpose of improving working ‘methods’ &
‘processes’.
2. Job Analysis for the purpose of protecting health and safety.
3. Job Analysis for the purpose of training.
4. Job Analysis for employment purposes, a) In guiding pupils in
selecting proper vocation. b) In helping employees to select, transfer
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3.3.2. Need for Job Analysis :
Job analysis has the following needs:
1. Job analysis assists in knowing the per sonal specifications for various
jobs.
2. Job analysis helps in bringing together the right worker for the right
job.
3. Job analysis helps in job satisfaction and job efficiency.
4. Job analysis assists in the accurate determination of job opportunities
for var ious types of manpower in the industries.
5. Job analysis helps in planning appropriate training programmes.
6. Job analysis defines labour needs in specific terms.
Blum and Balinsky point out the importance of job analysis as “An
attempt to relate the curri culum of both high school and colleges to a
series of job analysis -imposed by industries may make for more
meaningful and highly motivated education.”
Advantages of Uses of Job Analysis :
Job analysis is a scientific approach for providing vocational guidance. It
brings efficiency in functioning of human being. The following are the
main advantages and uses of job analysis.
1. Manpower Planning: Job analysis is the qualitative aspect of
manpower requirement because it determines the demands of the job in
terms of responsibilities and duties and then translates these demands in
terms of skills, qualities and other human attributes. It also determines the
quantum of work, which an average pe rson can perform on the job in a
day. It facilitates the division of work into different job.
2. Recruitment, Selection and Placement: In order to hire a right person
on the job, it is essential to known requirements of the job and the qualities
of the individual who will perform it. This information is procured from
job description and job specifications respectively and helps the
management in matching as closely as possible the job requirements with
worker’s aptitude, abilities, interests, etc, to fac ilitate the execution of
employment programme.
3. Training and Development: Job analysis determines the levels of
standard of job performance. It helps administering the training
development programme. If the contents of job descriptions, and job
specification are known the employees, they will try their level best to
achieve the skills, and knowledge required to perform the task assigned to
them efficiently. They may also prepare themselves for the higher post.
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4. Job Evaluation: Job an alysis provides a basis for job evaluation. Job
evaluation aims at determining the relative worth of the job, which in turn
helps in determining the compensation of job.
5. Performance appraisal: Job analysis data provide a clear -cut standard
of performa nce for every job. The performance of employee can be
appraised objectively with the standard of job performance so established.
A supervisor can very easily compare the contribution of each man with
the set standards.
6. Job Designing: Industrial engine ers use the job analysis information in
designing the job by making the comprehensive study of the job elements.
Human engineering activities such as physical, mental and psychological
and studied with the help of job analysis information.
7. Safety and Health : The job analysis uncovers the hazardous and
unhealthy environment factors such as heat, noise, fumes, dust etc. The
management can take corrective measures to minimize the chances of
various risks to ensure safety to workers and to avoid unhealthy condition.
8. Discipline : Job analysis provides the information regarding
characteristics of various jobs, and the job holders. It studies the failure of
the workman to meet the required standard of performance. Corrective
measures may be taken in time to avoid untoward situation. In this way, it
helps in maintaining the discipline in industry.
Check Your Progress
1. Discuss the concept of Job Analysis.
2. List and explain some advantages of Job Analysis.
3.4 JOB SATISFACTION
Job satisfaction means the individual should like his job. There are many
factors which cause one to get satisfaction from the job. That differs from
individual to individual. One may satisfy with salary whereas other with
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3.4.1 Concept of Job Satisfaction :
An acceptable definition of job satisfaction runs like this, ‘Job satisfaction
is the whole matrix of job factors that make a person ‘like’ his work
situation and be ‘willing’ to head for it without distaste at the beginning of
his work day .” This means that job satisfaction includes two aspects:
1. Liking and enjoying the job.
2. Going to one’s job with the head erect and with smile Job satisfaction
results from successful adjustments in following three areas:
a) Adjustment of self
b) Adjustment of society
c) Adjustment to work
Importance of Job Satisfaction Investigations have shown that when a man
is satisfied with his work, the employer profits by greater output, fever
quits and many other tangible and intangible results accrue. A person
satisfied with his job is likely to profit by having high morale in his life. A
developing society like ours must ensure maximum job satisfaction of our
workers.
3.4.2 Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction :
It is very important for the guidance worker to be conversant with the
factors on which job satisfaction depends. Job satisfaction depends upon
many inter related factors and it is very difficult to isolate these factors.
Broadly speaking it depends on:
1. Personal factors
2. Factors inherent in the job
3. Factors control led by the management (Government)
1. Personal Factors :
These include the following factors:
Sex: it is generally found that women are more satisfied with their
jobs than are men. This is perhaps due to the fact that women’s
financial needs and ambitions are less.
Number of Dependents : It is a well -known fact that more the
dependents the lesser the job satisfaction.
Age: age has little relationship with job satisfaction.
Time on Job : according to ‘Hall and Kolastad’, the highest morale is
reached after the 20th year.
Intelligence : level of one’s intelligence has great deal to do with job
satisfaction.
Education : right placement of workers in the light of their
professional education leads to job satisfaction.
Personality : personality maladjustments is the source of job
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2. Factors inherent in a job :
Some of these factors are:
Type of work
Skills required
Occupational status.
Size of the plant
3. Factors Controlled by Management Authority (Government) :
These factors are:
Security
Pay
Fringe benefits
Opportunities for advancement
Working conditions
Co-workers
Check Your Progress
1. What is understood by Job Satisfaction?
3.5 OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
The term Occupational Information means any and all kinds of
information regarding any position, job or occupation provided that the
information is potentially useful to a person who is choosing an
occupation. Occupational Information includes accurate and usable
information about industries, processes and training facilities to the extent
that such information is related to jobs. Occupational Information also
includes pertinent and usable facts about occupational trends and supply of
and demand for labour. Occupational Information does not include the
study of abilities, aptitudes and other characteristics of individuals,
workers, job seekers or students.
Occupational information service serves the following purposes:
To develop a broad and realistic view of life’s opportunities and
problems at all levels of training.
To create an awareness of the need for accurate and valid
occupational educational and personal -social information. munotes.in
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To provide an understanding of the wide scope of educational,
occupational and social activities in terms of broad categories of
related ac tivities.
To assist in the mastery of techniques of obtaining and interpreting
information for progressive self -direction.
To promote attitudes and habits which assist in making career choices
and adjustment.
To provide assistance in narrowing choices p rogressively to specific
activities which are appropriate to attitudes, abilities and interests
manifested.
3.5.1 Concept of Occupational Information:
Occupational information refers to the collection of details
about occupational and educational opportunities. Gathering and
using occupational information is essential if an individual is to select
options that fit his or her interests, values, aptitudes, and skills.
It is natural that information about anything energizes an individual if he is
interested in that matter. For different categories of individuals, different
types of information are important. But for the student community,
information on different educational careers and occupations is
noteworthy and worth mentioning. Because to make a wise choice or
proper decision on any matter, the pupils must be well informed about the
pros and cons of that matter.
Hence for providing detail information relating any matter, a service may
be meant for this. Similarly , for giving detail information t o pupils on
different occupations a service is meant for it which is called
“occupational information service.” This information service provides a
variety of information to the pupils on various occupations as and when
needed.
3.5.2 Need for Occupational Information :
The need of occupational information service is felt for the pupils in the
following grounds:
1. Pupils of secondary and higher secondary schools have to make choices
relating to their future occupation, choice always involves knowledge
and idea. It means one can’t choose what one doesn’t know. A pupil
may join in an occupation by virtue of mere love. But the wise choice
of an occupation requires accurate information about an occupation.
Thus , selecting an occupation without accurate informat ion results in
square pegs in round holes and round pegs in square holes.
2. The guidance worker or counselor may be a highly qualified and
trained person, but without adequate information about various
occupations his services will be like an out worldly sho wing good thing munotes.in
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having no value in reality. Vocational guidance without adequate
occupational information in in fact has no value.
3. Occupational information makes the guidance service informative,
motivational, adjective and evaluative and is accepted as he lpful for the
pupils.
4. Now there are more than 400 occupations in the world of work. Each
occupation is different from the other in terms of characteristics and
requirements. Every pupil should be helped to choose an occupation,
prepare for it, enter into t he occupation and make satisfactory progress
in it in accordance with his ambition, interests, abilities and limitations.
Collection, classification and dissemination of occupational
information are therefore important to assist students in their vocationa l
choices, vocational planning and vocational placement.
Check Your Progress
1. Discuss the concept of Occupational Information
2. State the need for Occupational Information
3.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we have studied job analysis it’s need & job satisfaction it’s
importance in life. We also read about the factors that affect job
satisfaction. So, you can analyse you job & try to solve the problems that
affects job satisfaction. Guidance is concerned with educational,
vocational and oth er problem. these services help students to make proper
adjustments with the environment. Educational guidance refers to
guidance to the students in all aspects of education.
Vocational guidance is concerned with enabling students to acquire
information about career opportunities, career growth and training
facilities. The student’s abilities, interests, attitude, aptitude and reeds and
identified to understand, accept and utilize his traits, opportunities for
learning about areas of Educational and Vocat ional endeavour, obtaining
experiences, assisting him in making of free and appropriate choices,
developing his potential to the optimum so that they may be a capable
individual. munotes.in
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3.7 QUESTIONS
1. Indicate the need of educational guidance.
2. Discuss scope of educational guidance.
3. How is educational guidance important at different stages of
educational?
4. Define and explain meaning of vocational guidance. Enumerate
various objective of vocational guidance.
5. “Vocational guidance dominates educat ional guidance.” Discuss &
Justify.
6. Write short notes on:
a) Collection of occupational information
b) Dissemination of occupational information.
7. What is job analysis? Explain it’s relation with job satisfaction.
8. Write short notes on
a. Need of job analysis
b. Uses of job analysis
c. Factors affecting job satisfaction.
3.8 REFERENCES
Bhatnagar, A. and Gupta, N.: Guidance and Counselling Vol. I – A
Theoretical Perspective. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1999.
Crow, L. and Crow, A.: Introduction to Guidance. New Delhi: Eurasia,
1962.
Geldard, K. and Geldard, D.: Counselling Children: A Practical
Introduction, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1997.
Gibson, R.L. and Mitchell, M.H.: Introduction to Counselling and G uidance,
New Jersey: Merill Prentice Hall, 1995.
Gupta, Manju: Effective Guidance and Counselling Modern Methods and
Techniques. Jaipur: Mangal Deep Publication, 2003
Jaiswal, S.R.: Guidance and Counselling. Lucknow: Lucknow
Prakashan,1985 Kochhar, S.K .: Guidance in Indian Education. New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers,1984. Koshy, Johns: Guidance and Counselling. New
Delhi: Dominant Publisher,2004. Mittal, M.L.: Kariyar Nirdeshan Avem
Rojgar Suchana. Meerut: International Publication House, 2004. Myer s,
G.E.: Principles and Techniques of Vocational Guidance. London: McGraw
Hill Book Company, 1941.
Pal, H.R. & Sharma, M.: Education of Gifted. New Delhi: Kshipra
Publication, 2007.
Pal, H.R. and Pal,A.: Education of Learning Disabled. New Delhi: Kshipra
Publication, 2007. munotes.in
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Rao, S. Narayana: Counselling and Guidance and Elementary School. New
Delhi: Anmol Prakashn, 2002.
Sharma, R.A.: Fundamentals of Guidance and Counselling. Meerut: R. Lall
Book Depot, 2001.
Sharma, Tarachand: Modern Methods of Guidanc e and Counselling. New
Delhi: Swarup & Sons., 2002.
Shrivastava, K.K.: Principles of Guidance and Counselling. New Delhi:
Kaniska Publication, 2003.
Singh, Raj: Educational and Vocational Guidance. New Delhi: Common
Wealth Publishers, 1994.
Taneja, V.R. : First Course in Guidance and Counselling. Chandigarh:
Mohindra Capital, 1972.
Vashist, S.R.: Vocational Guidance and Elementary School. New Delhi
https://johnparankimalil.wordpress.com/
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/education/guidance -in-
schools/occupational -information -service -meaning -need -types -and-
sources/63676
http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/46278/1/Unit -10.pdf
*****
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4
COUNSELOR AND COUNSELING FOR
SPECIAL NEEDS
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Counseling For Children With Special Needs
4.2.1 Counseling Children With Different Types Of Disabilities
4.3 Counseling For Adolescent Issues (Bullying, Academic Stress,
Addiction)
4.3.1 Bullying
4.3.2 Counseling Strategies To Overcome Bullying
4.3.3 Academic Stress During Adolescence
4.3.4 Counseling Techniques For Overcoming Academic Stress
4.3.5 Counseling For Addiction
4.3.6 Principles Of Treatment: Adolescent Addiction Issues
4.3.7 Strategies Of Counseling For Overcoming Addiction
4.3.8 Recovery Support Services
4.4 Ethics Of Counseling
4.4.1 Section 1: The Counseling Relationship
4.4.2 Section 2:Confidentiality And Privacy
4.4.3 Section 3: Professional Responsibility
4.4.4 Section 4: Relationships With Other Professionals
4.4.5. Section 5: Evaluation And Assessment
4.4.6. Section 6: Supervision, Training, And Teaching
4.4.7. Section 7: Research And Publicati on
4.4.8 Section 8: Distance Counseling, Technology, And Social Media
4.4.9 Section 9: Resolving Ethical Issues
4.5 Summary
4.6 Unit Exercise
4.7 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Plan and undertake counseling for children with special needs munotes.in
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Plan and undertake counseling for adolescent issues (bullying,
academic stress and addiction)
Make a list of ethics of counseling
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Dear students, guidance and counseling services are vital servic es which
may be needed by any individual at any point of time in his or her life.
Students generally require guidance in the context of education and
selecting appropriate carrier. Adults depend on guidance and counseling
while selecting a particular job, enhancing job satisfaction and maintaining
marital relationships. From the previous unit you have learnt that
person -job fit is the underlying principle of job satisfaction. In order to be
successful, the person should be ‘fit’ for a particular job and vic e-versa.
Many factors are present within the person as well as in the
job-environment which affect a person’s job satisfaction. People need
guidance in narrowing down areas of job as per their preferences. As such,
career guidance is one important area of guidance and counseling.
In this unit we are going to focus on one more area of guidance and
counseling. Are you aware about the term ‘Divyangajan’? Yes, this term is
used to represent children and persons with disabilities. They are known as
‘special’ c hildren. What is ‘special’ about them? Did you think about it?
They have needs like any other normal child; like need for affection,
care, play, etc. However, apart from these regular needs, they also have
additional or extra needs as a result of their di sability, like need for
auditory training for deaf children, braille -text books for blind children.
Some children may need physiotherapy and occupational therapy as per
the specific type of disability. These additional needs are known as
‘special education al’ needs or ‘special needs’. This unit will empower you
with the knowledge about counseling children and adolescents with
special needs.
4.2 COUNSELING FOR CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Children with special needs are characterized by heterogeneity. They have
diverse learning needs. Each child is unique with a set of specific strengths
and weaknesses. Two boys of same age may have same degree and type of
hearing loss. However, their acade mic achievement will vary depending
upon many other factors like their onset of hearing loss, identification of
hearing loss, the age of intervention, their own personality traits, amount
of family support, socioeconomic status, parental education and pare ntal
involvement. Therefore, counseling is an essential service needed by
children with special needs. Although important, counselors may have less
contact with children having special needs due to a variety of reasons. One munotes.in
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reason is that, some counselors may not feel confident in dealing with this
group. They may be trained in counseling, but not in handling children
with disabilities. Tucker, Shepard, & Hurst (1986 ) indicated that some
counselors may not have complete information about a particular disabil ity
or they may hold some prejudice about children with disabilities, which
acts as a barrier in the way of effective counseling. Others may believe
that counseling children and persons with disabilities is the duty of special
educators from special school s (Tarver Behring, Spagna, & Sullivan,
1998). Counselors need to have additional set of skills while counseling
children with special needs.
The following are the steps to acquire this additional set of skills:
Step 1: Favourable attitude :
Baker (1992 ) indicated that counselors need to have proper attitude
towards children with disabilities. Incomplete information, holding low
expectations from them, focusing on their inabilities rather than their
abilities, pity, etc work as barriers in the way of eff ective counseling.
Step 2: Acceptance of children with disabilities :
Counselors need to collect accurate information about each and every
child from different sources like parents, special educators, children
themselves, their academic and disability rel ated assessments. This will
facilitate acceptance of children with disabilities and enable counselors to
deal effectively with them.
Step 3: Obtaining training :
Counselors can attend short term training courses about skill -development
involved in handlin g children with special needs. Many professionals with
psychology background are interested in special education courses like
B.Ed in learning disability, hearing impairment, etc. These training
courses not only provide an opportunity to establish good rap port with the
children having disabilities but also empower an individual with in -depth
knowledge about the disability. Counselors can apply the theory to
practice. They get an opportunity to identify the needs of children and
families. Only having theoret ical knowledge is not enough. A good
counselor needs to possess appropriate skills. These skills are discussed in
detail in the unit 4.2.1 below.
4.2.1 Counseling children with different types of disabilities :
The different types of disabilities can be classified into following groups:
Sensory disabilities
Neuro -developmental disabilities
Loco -motor disabilities
Multiple disabilities
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The counselor may come across a child belonging to any one of the above
disab ility-groups. Hence, he/she should be aware about the basic
characteristics, symptoms, challenges involved in each of the above
disability. Only then a counselor will be able to design appropriate
counseling plan. Let us read about different types of disab ilities in brief.
What are Sensory disabilities ?
In sensory disabilities brain finds it difficult to process sensory
information which we gather from sensory organs like sight, hearing, taste,
touch, and smell . This is the result of defects in the normal functioning of
the sensory organs. This group of disabilities contains children and
persons with deafness, low vision and blindness. The definitions of each of
the disabilities is provided in the Rights of the Persons with Disabilities
Act (2016). Kindly refer to the same for the definitions.
Counseling children with sensory disabilities:
Children with sensory disabilities face communication and mobility issues
to a great extent. If the child is having blindness, then the child and its
parents need counseling about mobility -training. The child as well as the
family members may need to be tr ained in using the tactile sign boards or
communication boards. Hearing impairment primarily affects language
and communication skills of a child. Hence, counselor needs to provide
information about different techniques of restoring communication link
betw een the child and the family -members. The counselors need to refer
the child to appropriate professionals like audiologist, sp eech therapist,
special educator, so that future course of rehabilitation can be determined
for the child.
During the early year s, human brain in characterized by plasticity. It
means flexibility. As a result, young children learn at a much faster rate
than adults. Young children spend most of their time with the parents.
Hence, counselors need to empower parents as soon as the dis ability is
identified. Parents need counseling in accepting their child’s disability and
planning intervention activities of the child. As far as deaf children are
concerned, parents may need assistance in selecting appropriate
communication options for th eir child. The counselor should inform
parents about all the three options and allow them to decide one
communication option which is most suitable for their child.
‘Whether to place the child in special school or mainstream school?’ is
another important question where in caregivers need counseling. The
counselor should provide information about all the available school
options to the parents. However, it is the parents who will decide the best
school placement for their child from among the options avail able to them.
What are Neuro -developmental disabilities?
Neuro -developmental disabilities result from damage to the brain and / or
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disability, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), intellectu al disability,
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and cerebral palsy.
These group of disabilities greatly affect the child’s cognitive processes
and academic achievement. Social skills may also be affected to some
extent in children with autis m, ADHD, intellectual disability. Children
with severe degree of autism and intellectual disability may have gross
communication impairment and they may not be able to express using
fluent speech. As such they need support of a counselor at many instances.
Counselling children with neuro -developmental disabilities:
The role of a counselor starts, once a specific disability has been
diagnosed. The counselor can help parents in following ways:
Referral:
The parents have knowledge about upbringing regular children. However,
when a child is born with a disability, they get confused and face many
challenges. They are not aware about the nature of disability and where to
take the child for intervention. Couns elor can refer the parents to different
professionals like psychologists, special educators, audiologists, speech
therapists, as per the needs. Some children may require further
assessments. Counselors can refer parents to appropriate professionals and
enable them to reach perfect diagnosis.
Networking :
Counselors can help in establishing networks between special educators,
parents and community sources for better rehabilitation of the child. The
children with mild to moderate disabilities, whenever possible should be
included in the decision making process.Counsel ors can assist the special
educators and the expert team of professionals in making an individualized
educational plan (IEP) for students with disability.
Development of social skills:
The counselors can plan a social skills program for developing
age-appropriate social and emotional skills for children with
neuro -developmental disabilities. Such programs can be organized for
children, parents and teachers. Counselors with the help of class -teachers
can design a social skills program for entire class. E.g . class teacher can
form some rules for classroom communication and reinforce the
non-disabled students who interact with or help students with disabilities
in the class.
Use of modelling and reinforcement:
Some children and adolescents with disabilities may face social and
emotional problems, such as depression, low self -esteem. Counselors can
model expected behaviour patters which will help to build positive
self-esteem in these children. They can model appropriate ways of
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with alternative solutions to solve the problems. You must be aware about
the power of reinforcement. Counselors can reinforce the appropriate
behaviour by using tokens and rewards for sustaining positive behaviour.
Opportunities for learning the desirable behaviour can be created for them.
Counseling family members:
The counselors need to work with all the family members containing a
child with disability to foster acceptance, communication, optimum
conditions for t he child. They can help family members to have positive
feelings towards each other and especially towards child with disability. If
the child is having ADHD, then counselors can refer the parents to a
psychiatrist. Counselors can offer specific need -based support and
guidance to parents. This will help in reducing stress level of parents to a
great extent.
What is Loco -motor Disability ?
‘Loco-motor Disability’ refers to a person’s inability in making body
movements and mobility. Out of the total persons with disabilities in India,
loco-motor disability constitutes 20.3 percent of the population. The
persons with loco -motor disability may face i ssues in walking, grasping
and lifting objects. They need assistive devices like crutches, Jaipur foot,
wheelchair to aid in mobility. Loco -motor disabilities may be congenital
or acquired as a result of some accident. Poliomyelitis is an example of
acquir ed loco motor disability.
Counselling children with loco -motordisability :
Counselor plays a very important role initially while collecting the
case-history details of a person with loco-motor disability. They need
services from three types of professiona ls: neurologists, orthopedics and
physiotherapists. The problems related to brain and spinal cord may be
taken care of by a neurologist, while the problems related to muscles,
joints, bones, movements may be taken care of by physiotherapists and
orthopedic s. The counselor plays role of a net-worker between the
different professionals and the persons with disability and their family.
The counselor also helps the family members and the persons with
disability to know about the schemes, concessions and facilit ies provided
by Central and State Governments. For adolescents with loco-motor
disability, the counselor can help by providing vocational guidance along
with a list of vocational training institutes. The counselor needs to provide
counseling services about following:
Medical management and corrective surgery:
These surgeries are required for treatment of contracture and deformities.
The counselor can refer the persons with loco-motor disabilities to medical
professionals as per the needs of the client.
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Physical therapy:
This is provided for enhancing muscle movements and fine and gross
motor skills. The aim is to restore the physical abilities. The counselor can
connect the persons with loco-motor disabilities to the physiotherapists
and explain the i mportance of regular physical exercise to the client.
Occupational therapy:
Counselor can make the clients aware about the need of occupational
therapy for development of daily living activities and fine motor skills.
The aim is to enable them to use fu nctional activities primarily using
hands and arms. The counselor can connect them to the occupational
therapist as per the client’s needs.
Prosthetics and Orthotics:
Prosthetics implies the science of dealing with artificial replacement of the
lost body part either congenitally or due to amputation which includes
total limbs, fi ngers, partial hand, partial foot, eyes, nose, ear, breast and so
on. Whereas Orthotics implies the science of dealing with mechanical
correction of orthopedic deformities, realignment, redirection of lines of
force action in the body, support of weak parts, prevention of unwanted
movement, relieving weight borne by certain body parts, and so on. The
persons with disabilities need counseling with respect to acceptance of
these prosthetic aids and their use.
Check Your Progress
1. Who are children with special educational needs? What is ‘special’
in them?
2. How will you counsel children with special needs? Write with
reference to different disabilities.
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4.3 COUNSELING FOR ADOLESCENT ISSUES (BULLYING, ACADEMIC STRESS, ADDICTION)
Adolescence is a period between childhood and adulthood. It is a period of
transition and lot of changes take place in the body during this period. As
per WHO, adolescents are persons between the age -group of 10 to 19
years. This period includes the ‘teena gers’. It is the period of puberty and
both girls and boys pass through physical and psychological changes. Age
is only a rough benchmark about adolescence. These are not water -tight
compartments. Some children may show signs of maturity earlier in life,
while some may reach puberty a bit later. The development of self -concept,
sexual orientation, self -esteem, body -perception progresses during this
stage. Hormonal changes also take place during this stage. These physical
and psychological changes may lead t o different types of behaviour
problems and issues during adolescence. In case of children with
disabilities they have distorted perception about their body. Children with
sensory disabilities may have communication issues and as a result they
may develop inferiority complex during adolescence. Barriers in
expressing oneself makes them susceptible to issues like bullying,
academic stress, addiction, aggressive behaviours, eating disorders, etc. In
this unit we are going to study the issues faced by adolesce nts with
disabilities and how to solve them.
4.3.1 Bullying :
You must have heard this term ‘bullying’ during your college days. It
involves a group of students dominating other weak students in class.
Bullying involves a range of behaviors that take plac e in class. In order to
offer counseling services in this respect, counselors should be able to
identify the behavio urs that come under ‘bullying’. Bullying is defined as
intentional behaviors which are unwanted and aggressive and these
behaviors are often repeated in relationships with a perceived power
difference . (Midgett, 2016). Midgett (2016) has given four types of
bullying behaviors: physical, verbal, relational and cyber bullying.
Physical bullying: It primarily involves any kind of physical assault on
the child like pushing, hitting, kicking, slapping, snatching hearing aids,
breaking assistive device,etc. It al so includes behaviours which involve
damage to other property or things used by other students.
Verbal bullying: This involves making verbal assault, like statements
which will hurt a person, name -calling, making comments which are
often negative, threat ening a person verbally, teasing, passing
comments about a child’s disability, assistive devices.
Relational bullying: In this case the target is not the weaker student
directly, but an attempt is made to spoil his/her reputation in the eyes of
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negative image of a person in front of others, asking other students to
stop making friendship with this particular student with disability.
Cyber bullying: At present young generation is addicte d to using
mobile phones and apps based on the use of internet. As a result
knowingly or unknowingly there is increase in the rate of cyber crimes.
Cyber bullying involves the use of electronic media such as posting
photos of a person with disability or wr iting comments on social
networking sites without his/her permission with an intention to harm
other student’s sentiments.
4.3.2 Counseling strategies to overcome bullying:
Bullying can have many long term and short term effects, not only on the
person who are victims of bullying, but also those who bully and those who
are silent observers. The students who fall prey to bullying may experience
a range of negative emotional states like depression, increased suicidal
tendencies, suicide attempts, lack of confidence, problems related to
academic performance, school attendance and social relationships. The
students who indulge in bullying others are more likely to have problems
like substance abuse in adolescence. As adults they may get into violence,
disrup tive and criminal behaviours. Apart from the students who are
directly involved in bullying, the bystanders also experience increased
levels of stress. Therefore, the counselors need to be competent in
identifying bullying in its different forms and be awa re about how different
forms of bullying affect the lives of students with disabilities.
Midgett (2016) d eveloped an intervention program for making the
school -students aware about the different types of bullying and ways to
prevent it. It was named as ‘STAC’. In this acronym ‘S’ stands for ‘stealing
the show’, ‘T’ stands for ‘turning it over’, ‘A’ stands for ‘Accompanying
others’ and ‘C’ stands for ‘coaching compassion’. They represent the three
strategies the counselors can use to prevent occurrence of bullying in class.
Stealing the show:
In this strategy humour is used to divert attention of students aw ay from the
bullying situation. The students, who are defending, do not feel that they are
separated from the peer -group and at the same time they can protect their
friend who is the victim of bullying. E.g. In a fourth standard class few
students are maki ng fun of a boy wearing hearing aids and who is not able to
speak clearly. Another student (defender) enters in and tells a joke. The
attention of all the students including the students who were teasing turns
away from the target and it makes the environm ent lighter. All the students
laugh at the joke.
Turning it over:
It includes giving information to a responsible adult about the bullying
situation and asking him/ her for help. In this strategy, counselor trains the
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not able to decide intervention or coping strategies to prevent bullying. E.g.
the defender finds a photo and a post about his classmate who is using a
wheelchair for mobility on a social networking site. He takes pri nt out of
hard copies of the post and submits it to the class -teacher. In this way the
incident was reported and the class -teacher took appropriate action.
Accompanying others :
In this strategy, the defender stands by the student who was the victim of
bullying to communicate that this behaviour is not acceptable and that the
student is not alone and that the defender cares about him or her. This
strategy can be implemented by the counselor during bullying as well as
after bullying is over. The defender ca n invite the victim for a walk or a play
and share his/her feelings about bullying. E.g. During PT period all the
students were left free to play the game of their choice on ground. All the
girls purposefully left one girl with low vision alone and started playing a
group game. The girl with low vision also wanted to join the game, but the
group didn’t allow her to participate. One student from a higher class was
observing this scene from classroom window. She came down to help the
student with low vision. She started playing another game with this girl and
also told her that whatever the girls did was not correct. Later, the senior
student also informed the students who were bullying that they were wrong.
Coaching compassion:
This is a direct way of prev enting bullying. The student who is involved in
bullying is directly confronted either during or after the incident. He / she is
communicated that this behaviour will not be accepted in future. This
involves gently confronting the bully either during or af ter the incident and
communicating that his or her behaviour is not acceptable. This strategy
generates the feeling of empathy among the students who get involved in
bullying. E.g. A defender is sitting in canteen with his friend. The friend
intentionally laughs and passes a comment about a student who is deaf and
uses sign language. After this incident, the defender questions his friend
about his behaviour. He shares one incident in which he was targeted by
another student and how negative he felt after th is incident.
4.3.3 Academic Stress during Adolescence :
When there are too many demands from the environment and individual
lacks the resources to cope up with these demands, it gives rise to stress.
These demands are known as stressors. (Roberson, 1985). Adolescents are
at increased risk of getting confronted with these stressors. As we have
already studied, adolescence is a period of transition and is accompanied
by various physical and biological changes. Apart from the changes taking
place in the body, transition also takes place from school to college level.
Children with disabilities have to put in lot of efforts to achieve basic
functional skills which children without disabilities achieve naturally
without any efforts. They are constantly bomb arded with different
stressors in the form of expectations from the parents, special educators,
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and this creates lot of academic stress for children with disabilities. Many
research studies indicated that when the children undergo high level of
stress, they are vulnerable to getting indulged in different types of
maladaptive behaviours like consumption of alcohol, drug addiction,
involving in unprotected sexual activities, physic al in -activity, eating
disorders and sleep disturbances. ( King, Vidourek & Singh, 2014 ; Bennet
and Holloway, 2014 ). Busari (2012) indicated that many children with
disabilities are victims of depression because depression is associated with
problems in con centration, fear of failure, negative picture of future, etc.
These stressors affect students’ academic performance to a great extent.
Hence, the counsellor needs to intervene and explain the strategies of
coping with academic stress. The few strategies ar e given below:
4.3.4 Counseling techniques for overcoming academic stress:
The counselor may use any one or group of techniques to help the child
with disability overcome the academic stress. These techniques are given
below:
Time management skills :
The adolescents need to be trained about time management skills. Many a
times they take longer time to comprehend instructions and finishing the
task on time. The counselors need to train the parents as well as the
vocational instructors in making effectiv e use of the time management
skills. This is because these individuals deal on a face to face basis with
adolescents having disabilities. Hence, they should adopt a more stringent
time schedule and make these children complete their tasks on time.
Organi zational skills :
Counselors can help students with disabilities in planning their daily
activities and studies. This will help children with disabilities to plan and
execute activities.
Good study habits :
Majority of students with disabilities do not feel interested in literacy
related activities. Counselors can instil in them, good study habits by
including literacy related activities in their daily routine life.
Other simple techniques are:
Regular exercise and enough sleep
Avoid drug abuse
Learning to think rationally and optimistically
Practicing yoga, meditation and dance activities.
Involve children in a variety of physical activities like walking,
swimming, running, etc.
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Problem solving skills -training
Cognitive re -structuring which involves purposefully thinking about
something else when the thoughts which provoke stress come in our
mind.
Self-control training
Having realistic expectations from the child
4.3.5 Counseling for addiction :
What is addiction?
With the launch of 4G and innovation in mobile phones, majority of us are
victims of addiction to mobile phone. Range of people including children,
youngsters and senior citize ns are dependent and addicted to different types
of apps available on mobile phone. Therefore, let us begin by understanding
what ‘addiction’ is? Felmen (2018) defined addiction as a psychological
and physical inability to stop consuming a chemical, drug, activity, or
substance, even though it is causing psychological and physical harm. The
term is not limited only to substance abuse, but, it also includes addiction to
involvement in certain activities like eating, working, gambling, watching
porn sites, et c.
Sharma & Joshi (2013) conducted a study on drug addiction among
street -children in India. They indicated that, almost eighteen million
children dwell on streets and are involved in some kind of street -jobs in
India. This group of children is vulnerabl e to drug abuse and Indian studies
have reported that almost 40% to 70% of children living on streets in India
are victims of drug addiction. Johnston & O’Malley Et.al (2013)
highlighted that out of the total number of high school students, almost
seventy percent would have tried an alcohol, fifty percent would have
consumed an illegal drug, forty percent would have entered into
cigar -smoking and twenty percent would have tried some prescription drug
for non -medical purpose. When a person becomes addicted t o certain
substances or an activity, he / she does not understand how to come out of it
or control it. The person becomes more and more dependent on the source
of addiction with each passing day to get relief from mental stress and
work -pressures.
All the adolescents are not vulnerable to addiction. This is because there are
risk-factors; presence of which increases the vulnerability to addiction. First
and foremost, human brain is not fully developed during ‘teenage’. It is
characterized by neural plas ticity (flexibility). The pre -frontal cortex is not
fully developed at this stage. This area in the brain is responsible for
assessing situations, making sound decisions, and controlling our emotions
and impulses; typically, this circuitry is not mature un til a person is in his or
her mid -20s (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2014). This affects their
ability to weigh risks and make rational decisions including the decision to
consume drugs. Apart from this biological factor, teenagers have an munotes.in
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increased ur ge to seek ‘new’ and ‘cool’ experiences. They may try out drugs
out of this curiosity, but it has long term negative consequences on their
health. Many other factors like availability of drugs in the environment,
presence of a drug -addict person in the fam ily, school or college, violence,
physical or emotional abuse, mental stress at home increase the risk of
addiction among adolescents. (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2014).
Counselors can rescue adolescents from any form of addiction. They should
be aw are about the principles of treating the addiction in adolescents which
are given below:
4.3.6 Principles of Treatment: Adolescent addiction issues:
The source of adolescent -addiction needs to be identified and
addressed at the earliest:
Many adults wh o go on to become drug -addicts, enter into over use of
drugs, substances during their teenage. Hence, one should identify the
source of addiction at the earliest and try to prevent its use during the
adolescent age itself.
Drug abuse intervention may be useful even though adolescents
are not addicted to drugs:
Exposing adolescents to intervention programs which spread awareness
about harmful effects of consuming drugs play a very important role in
preventing drug addiction among youngsters.
Routine medi cal check -ups are an opportunity to screen
adolescents about drug use :
Medical professionals like doctors, dentists, psychiatrists, other clinicians
have standardized screening tests which will help to determine the level of
teenager’s involvement in smok ing, drugs, tobacco, alcohol and such other
substances. If the teenager talks about consumption of alcohol or drugs, the
medical professional may provide face to face intervention or refer the
person to addiction -treatment program.
Treatment is successfu l with family pressure and family
involvement:
Many a times adolescents hesitate and deny entering into addiction
treatment programs. However, when the family members intervene and
make the treatment programs mandatory, the youngsters enter, sustain and
complete these programs.
The treatment program for addiction should be as per the
individual needs of the adolescents:
The first step in treatment program is conducting comprehensive
assessment about a person’s strengths and weaknesses, his/her relations
with family, peer group, job stress, etc. The perso n’s behavior is viewed in
relation to his/her family, peer group, work group. Then the next step is to
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Family and community are the two important aspects of treatment:
Many evidence based programs have indicated that the support and
communication with the family members is essential for speedy recovery
and abstinence from drugs.
Identifying and treating any other mental health condition :
Adolescents who are involved in drug -abuse frequently suffer from some
kind of mental illness es (Chan,et.al, 200 9) like depression, or ADHD, or
communication issues like in case of deafness. Treatme nt or intervention
for these issues should be incorporated with the treatment for substance
abuse.
Identifying and addressing sensitive issues:
Many teenagers who enter into substance abuse may have history of sexual
assault, abuse, either physical, sexual or emotional. If the counselor
suspects about the presence of abuse, the same case should be referred to
social an d protective services.
Continuous monitoring of addiction treatment is necessary:
Teenagers taking up the addiction recovery program may experience
‘relapse’ or fallback and may start consuming drugs again. ‘Relapse’ in
drug or addiction treatment indica tes that the person needs more amount of
treatment and a modified treatment plan. Hence, continuous monitoring of
addiction -recovery treatment is necessary. Similarly, post treatment care
and monitoring also play an important role in preventing relapse of
addiction.
Testing adolescents for sexually transmitted diseases :
Consuming drugs either through injection or without injection increases the
risk for sexually transmitted diseases that pass through blood stream
including HIV, hepatitis B and C. All types of addiction limit a person’s
ability to take decisions and hence, it increases the risk of adolescents
getting involved in unprotected sexual behaviors, sharing same
contaminated drug instruments, unsafe tattoo designing, body piercing art,
etc. Counselors can help adolescents in altering these behaviors and thereby
improve their quality of life.
4.3.7 Strategies of counseling for overcoming addiction :
Overcoming addiction among adolescents involves couseling the teenagers
as well as their family members. A number of need -based treatment options
are available to help the adolescents as well as their parents deal with the
challenge of addiction. These programs have three main agendas. First is to
motivate the t eenagers to stop using drugs. Second, to work upon the
recovery plans and third, to develop a positive home environment for the
teens where the family members accept and support the adolescents to cope
with the addiction. The following are the three main t ypes of treatment
options for overcoming addiction among adolescents (Hamptom, 2019): munotes.in
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1. Behavioural treatments
2. Family based therapies
3. Use of medications
1. Behavioural treatments:
Many a times the teens who are involved in drug addiction may suffer from
underlying mental disorders like depression, anxiety or frustration.
Behavioural therapy enables the adolescents to deal with psychological
problems that lead to drug abuse or addict ion. In this treatment, the
adolescents are trained to identify the psychologically stressful events
which trigger the cravings for consuming drugs. They are taught how to
overcome the cravings and avoid the use of drugs during such situations.
Along with the adolescents, their parents are also offered counseling. The
family members are asked to improve their communication with the
adolescents at home. They are asked to form close relationships with the
teens so that they can share and release their emotion al burden at home and
do not take support of drugs to overcome the stressful event. The counselor
may use any one of the three types of behavioural treatments or an eclectic
approach (combination of any two approaches) for treating addiction. They
are give n below:
Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET) :
The main purpose of this therapy is to develop realization among the teens
that drug -addiction is not good for health and to motivate them to
participate in the drug addiction treatment program. It involve s one to three
sessions which often take place in addition to other treatment options. The
recovery is faster, only when the teens themselves feel the need for leaving
drugs. This objective is achieved through MET.
Adolescent Community Reinforcement App roach (A -CRA) :
The main target of this therapy is not the adolescent involved in drug
addiction, but, the environment and the people surrounding him/her. It tries
to remove the negative factors like peers who promote drug -use from the
adolescent’s environm ent. The counselor works on building healthy
relationships between the adolescent and the family members. This will
help to develop problem -solving skills, coping skills and communication
skills among the adolescents. It primarily focuses on enhancing the
adolescent’s support system.
Contingency Management :
This treatment option is based on the concept of reinforcement given by
Skinner. When the adolescent follows the drug -addiction treatment plan
and shows resistance to the use of drugs, their behaviour is rewarded with a
prize or usually the thing which the adolescent desires to get. This method is
used in combination with other methods.
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2. Family -Based -Therapies :
In these therapies, the adolescent remains at his residence among the family
members. At home, the parents monitor and supervise the teen’s behaviour
and the counselor works on improving the amount of emotional support that
the teen gets from the family me mbers. Thus, the addiction -treatment takes
places in a natural setting.The following are the types of family -based
therapies:
Family Behavioural Therapy:
In this therapy both the teens as well as the parents receive rewards for
showing appropriate behaviours. The teen receives reward on showing
resistance to drugs, while the parents receive reward on providing the much
needed support during the stress -provoking situation. This emotional
support helps the teen to rely on parents and not on drugs duri ng the
stressful event. Thus, it aims to establish a positive home environment and
healthy family -relationships.
Brief Strategic Family Therapy (BSFT) :
This method is similar to the earlier method. However, it can be practiced
in outpatient (drug -addict t een is at home), inpatient (the drug -addict teen
is placed in the program away from family members) as well as post -rehab
care option.
Multidimensional Family Therapy (MDFT) :
This treatment option is basically for treating violent adolescents who are
involved in drug abuse. It establishes network between family members
and a juvenile home where the teens are taught socially acceptable
behaviours.
3. Use of addiction medications:
Many medications are available to provide treatment to the adults with
addiction. However, not a single medicine from these options is prescribed
for adolescents. Some counselors do use medications to treat addiction in
adolescents especially to resist the teens from using opioids, nicotine, and
alcohol. Currently, FDA has not approved a single medicine for treating
drug addiction among adolescents. Some of the commonly used
medications are b uprenorphine , naltrexone , methadone, etc.
4.3.8 Recovery support services:
Many a times there is a fall back and the adolescents again resume to
consuming drugs after the treatment. This relapse indicates that the earlier
treatment program was not effective and that there is a need to continue
the trea tment program with modified methods. Recovery support services
are provided to prevent this relapse. These services enable the adolescents
stay without drugs for a long period of time after treatment is complete.
Have you heard about narcotics a nonymous and alcoholics a nonymous ?
These groups allow the adult drug addicts to share their experiences about
how adverse their life was because of drug -addiction with others sailing in munotes.in
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the same ship. The following are the three options for recovery support
services:
Assertive Continuing Care (ACC) : A recovery program in which
medical practitioner assists the teen to stay healthy and prevent
addiction at the residence itself. The focus is on developing
communication and problem solving skills.
Peer Recovery Support Services : It is a group of teens who are
recovering from addiction. It is led by teens who are fully recovered
and they share their experiences with one another about overcoming
addiction.
Recovery High Schools : It is a school, esp ecially created to provide
educational services to the adolescents who are recovering from
addiction. Adolescents who are recovering, usually find it difficult to
concentrate on studies. Recovery high schools help to bring the
adolescents who may be lost, back to the mainstream of education.
This option is used to supplement the earlier two options namely
behaviour treatments and family based therapies.
Check Your Progress (Self -Evaluation Questions)
1. What is bullying? Explain few strategies to prevent bullying among
adolescents.
2. Discuss few strategies to overcome academic stress among
adolescents.
3. What are the treatments for overcoming addiction among
adolescents?
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4.4 ETHICS OF COUNSELING
American Counseling Association (ACA, 2014) has provided Code of
ethics for counselors. Counseling is a separate profession and hence, the
counselors have to follow code of professional ethics. Code of ethics are the
guiding principles or rules which inform the cou nselors what they can do
and what they cannot do as a part of their professional practice. The Code of
Ethics (ACA, 2014) are spread across nine sections given below:
1. The Counseling Relationship
2. Confidentiality and Privacy
3. Professional Responsibility
4. Relationships With Other Professionals
5. Evaluation, Assessment, and Interpretation
6. Supervision, Training, and Teaching
7. Research and Publication
8. Distance Counseling, Technology, and Social Media
9. Resolving Ethical Issues
Let us study the important code of ethics from each of the above
sections:
4.4.1 Section 1: The Counseling Relationship :
The counselor -client relationship is the backbone of healthy counseling.
The counselor should be able to develop trust in clients abo ut the entire
counseling process. Maintaining confidentiality about the information
shared by the client is of utmost importance.
Welfare of the client: The primary responsibility of the counselor is to
protect the dignity of the client and promote his/h er welfare.
Obtaining informed consent from the client: The counselors have an
obligation to communicate verbally and in writing the information about
the counseling process to the clients. It is the right of the client to have
information about the counselor and the counseling process. After
getting the info rmation, they can choose whether to continue or quit the
counseling process.
Avoid harm to the clients: Counselors do not harm clients or trainees or
research participants during a counseling session by their innovative
methods or experiments.
Non-coun seling roles and responsibilities are prohibited:
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romantic relationships with the current clients or their partners or their
family members are prohibited in person as well as electronic fo rm
(through social networking sites) .
Multiple clients: If the counselor is offering services to two or more
individuals who are related to each other (husband and wife, mother and
daughter, etc) then the counselor makes it clear in the beginning as to
who are the clients and what role the counselor will play for each of the
client separately.
Group counseling: Counselors screen participants before selecting
them for group counseling; They see to it that the needs and goals of all
the members in the gro up are more or less homogeneous. The individuals
with separate goals who do not fit into the group are not included in
group counseling.
Fees and Business practices: Counselors who are working with a
counseling firm are not supposed to refer the clients to their own private
clinics. They can do so only if the organization they are attached to
grants permission.
Termination of counseling : If counselors do not possess the
professional competence to counsel a particular client, they should either
not enter into or stop the counseling sessions. In this case , the counselors
can refer the client to other sources for counseling.
4.4.2 Section 2:Confidentiality and Privacy :
Respect multicultural considerations: Counselors have to address
clients of different cultural backgrounds. Hence, they hold discussions
regarding what confidentiality is for each client and ensure what, how
and with whom information can be shared during the counseling process.
Respecting cl ient’s privacy and confidentiality: Counselors ask for
client’s private information when it is going to be useful in the
counseling process. Whatever information is shared by the clients is kept
confidential and is shared only with the prior consent of the clients.
Disclosure of information : When the situation needs the counselor to
disclose the information about client, then the client is involved in the
disclosure process and only that part of the information which is
essential is disclosed with client’ s consent.
Disclosure of information with team -members : If an
inter-disciplinary team is involved in the counseling process, then the
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information will be shared with them along with the purpo se of sharing
that information.
Clients who are not able to give informed consent : There may be
clients who are not able to provide voluntary informed consent like the
children with severe disabilities. The information obtained from these
clients is also kept confidential by the counselors as per the code of
ethics.
Release of confidential information: When the clients are minor or
adults not in a position to give consent to release confidential
information, then the counselors obtain consent from a thi rd party.
Confidentiality or records: Counselors maintain confidentiality about
records or documents in any form whether print or electronic form. Only
individuals who are authorized are allowed to access these documents.
4.4.3 Section 3: Professional responsibility :
Responsibility to follow the standards : Counselors have the
responsibility to read, understand and follow the standards and code of
ethics prescribed by ACA.
Boundaries of competence : Counselors are aware about the boundaries
of their com petence and function within these boundaries based on their
training, education, observation, experience, professional credentials.
Counselors need to gain lot of professional experience in order to work
with multicultural client population.
Accurate adv ertising : While advertising about the counseling services
in public, counselors always present true credentials and not information
which is false.
Accurate representation of professional qualifications : Counselors
represent only those professionals quali fications or degrees which are
completed, accurate and authentic.
Non-discrimination : Counselors do not discriminate among their
clients on the basis of age, gender, disability, race, religion, language,
marital status, socio -economic status, nationality, or any other factor.
Evidence based treatments: While providing services, counselors tend
to use only evidence -based techniques, methods or procedures.
4.4.4 Section 4: Relationships with Other Professionals :
Counselors understand that the quality of their interactions with other
professionals, staff, colleagues, influence the quality of services offered to
the clients. Hence, counselors have to maintain professional, healthy
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4.4.5. Section 5: Evaluation and assessment:
This section contains ethics pertaining to administration of assessments as
to who can administer tests, selection of assessment tests, scoring, sharing
results, documenting the results, interpreting them and so on. Few important
ethics are given below:
Competence: Counselors administer only those assessment tests in
which they are trained and competent.
Selection of instruments: Counselors carefully check the psychometric
properties of the assessment tests (reliability and validity) before
selecting the instruments for assessment.
Decisions based on results : Counselors who are involved in making
decisions about the individual c lients are trained, experienced and have
complete knowledge about psycho -metrics .
4.4.6. Section 6: Supervision, Training, and Teaching :
Counselors also work as supervisors, teachers and trainers for their
students. In performing this duty, they need to be fair, un -biased, honest and
accurate. This section involves code of ethics pertaining to supervision,
training and teaching.
4.4.7. Section 7: Research and Publication :
Counselors undertake research as per the norms set by the funding
agency or the ho st institute.
They are supposed to keep the information pertaining to the research
participants confidential.
Counselors should think about the welfare of the participants and should
not harm them either physically, psychologically, emotionally through
their experiments.
The client has the right to withdraw from the research at any given time.
Informed consent n eeds to be obtained from the clients who are willing
to participate in the research.
Counselors who undertake joint research with their students, fellow
professionals, or superiors plan the work -load distribution, credits of
publication and acknowledgment s in advance.
4.4.8 Section 8: Distance Counseling, Technology, and Social Media :
At present, internet is used to offer a variety of services like medical,
banking, education, communication across the globe. Counselors
understand that even counseling ser vices can be provided using internet.
Counselors use distance counseling by adopting technology, social
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ethics related to the use, concerns, ways to maintain confidentiality,
authe nticity of information available f rom internet and its use in counseling.
4.4.9 Section 9: Resolving Ethical Issues :
The ACA policy and procedures for resolving complaints of violating
professional ethics are provided in the ACA manual. The counselors need to
refer to these procedures while resolving complaints.
Check Your Progress (Self -Evaluation Questions)
1. What are Counseling ethics? Explain counseling ethics as
prescribed by ACA(2014).
4.5 SUMMARY
Children with special needs are called as ‘special’ because apart from
regular needs, like need for care, affection, play, they also have
additional or extra needs as a result of their disability like need for
auditory training for deaf children, braille -text books for blind children.
As a result of these special needs, they are called as children with
special needs.
Children with special needs are characterized by heterogeneity. They
have diverse learning needs. Each child is unique with a set of specifi c
strengths and weaknesses. However, their academic achievement will
vary depending upon many other factors like their onset of hearing loss,
identification of hearing loss, the age of intervention, their own
personality traits, amount of family support, s ocioeconomic status,
parental education and parental involvement. Therefore, counseling is
an essential service needed by children with special needs.
Counselors need to have additional set of skills while counseling
children with special needs. Counselors should have favourable attitude,
acceptance of children with disabilities, and they need to obtain training
regarding how to guide and counsel different types of children with
disabilities.
The different types of disabilities can be classified into following
groups:
Sensory disabilities
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Loco -motor disabilities
Multiple disabilities
We studied about children belonging to different groups of disabilities
like sensory disabilities, neuro -developmental disabilities, loco -motor
disabilities, multiple disabilities. Then we discussed issues these
children face and how to counsel them. Counseling parents of
children with disabilities is an important part of counseling process.
Towards the end of the unit, you were oriented to the three common
issues faced by adolescents namely, bullying, academic stress and
addiction. Bullying is defined as intentional behaviours which are
unwanted and aggressive and these behaviors are often re peated in
relationships with a perceived power difference . (Midgett, 2016).
Adolescents mainly resort to four types of bullying: Physical, verbal,
relational and cyber bullying. Then you were introduced to the
strategies for intervening bullying. It includ es STAC program
developed by Midgett (2016). STAC represents the strategies for
overcoming bullying.
Academic stress: When there are too many demands from the
environment and individual lacks the resources to cope up with these
demands, it gives rise to a cademic stress. These demands are known
as stressors. (Roberson, 1985). Training the adolescents about time
management skills, organizational skills and good study habits can
help to reduce academic stress.
Addiction to drugs, mobile phones, alcohol, smo king is very high
among adolescents. The risk factors which increase the vulnerability to
addiction among adolescents involves factors like neural plasticity of
brain, availability or drugs in the environment, drug addiction among
family members,etc. Later , we studied about the principles of addiction
treatment which a counselor needs to keep in mind while counseling.
At the end we discussed three main types of treatment options for
overcoming addiction among adolescents:Behavioural treatments,
family based therapies and use of medications.
4.6 UNIT EXERCISE
Q1. Fill in the blanks with correct alternative from among the three
options given below:
1. Children with special educational needs are called ‘special’ because,
they have ____________________________
A. Special skills which are God’s gift
B. Additional needs
C. Special powers
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2. When a child is born with disability, parents are not aware about
where to go. Counselor should ______________________
A. Listen to the child’s issues.
B. Refer the child to appropriate professionals
C. Himself do all the counseling
3. There is a need to counsel about medical management and
corrective surgery when the child has _________ _____________
A. Sensory disability
B. Neuro - developmental disability
C. Loco -motor disability
4. In ‘STAC’ program introduced by Midgett (2014) ‘S’ stands for
_________________
A. Starting the intervention
B. Searching the source of stress
C. Stealing the show
5. __________________________ _ is one of the important code of
ethics which counselor needs to follow:
A. Obtaining informed consent
B. Disseminating client’s information without his/her knowledge
C. Continuously gathering private information about the client
Q2. Write short notes (5 marks each)
1. What is bullying? How will you overcome bullying in classroom with
special reference to children with disabilities? Explain with suitable
examples.
2. Discuss any three principles of addiction treatment programs.
4.7 REFERENCES
American Counseling Association (2014). Code of Ethics. Retrieved
online on 13/2/2020 from
https://www.counseling.org/resources/aca -code -of-ethics.pdf
Baker, S. B. (1992). School counseling in the twenty -first century.
New York: Merrill.
Chan, Y.F.; Godley, M.D.; Godley, S. H.; and Dennis, M.L. (2009).
Utilization of mental health services among adolescents in
communitybased substance abuse outpatient clinics. The Journal of
Behavioral Health Services & Research , Special Issue 35(1):35 –51.
Felman.A (2018). What is addiction? Medical News Today:
Newsletter. Retrieved online on 3/2/2020 from
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323465
Hampton.D (2019). How Teen Addiction Treatment works? Retrieved
online on 20/2/2020 from
https://www.addictioncenter.com/teenage -drug-abuse/addiction -treat
ment/ munotes.in
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Johnston, L.D.; O’Malley, P.M.; Bachman, J.G.; and Schulenberg, J.E.
(2013). Monitoring the Future National Results on Adolescent Drug
Use: Overview of Key Findings . Bethesda, MD: National Institute on
Drug Abuse. Retrieved online on 2/1/2020 from
www.monitoringthefuture.org
King, K. A., Vidourek, R. A., & Singh, A. (2014). Condoms, Sex, and
Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Exploring Sexual Health Issues
Among Asian -Indian College Students. Sexuality & Culture , 18(3),
649- 663.
Midgett (2016). Bullying: How counselors can intervene? Retrieved
online on 17/2/2 020 from
https://ct.counseling.org/2016/06/bullying -counselors -can-intervene/
National Institute of Drug Abuse (2014 ). Principles of Adolescent
Substance Use Disorder Treatment: A Research -Based Guide .
Retrieved online on 2/1/2020 from
https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles -adolescent -substa
nce-use-disorder -treatment -research -based -guide/introduction
Roberson, J.B. (1985). The Effects of Stress Inoculation Tr aining In a
Classroom
Setting on State -Trait Anxiety Level and Self Concept of Early
Adolescents
(Doctoral dissertation).Texas Tech University, United States of
America.
RPWD Act (2016). Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act. Retrieved
online on 21/2/ 2020 from
https://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=155592
Sharma.N & Joshi.S (2013). Preventing -substance abuse among street
children in India: A literature review. Health Science Journal . 7.
137-148. Retrieved online on 21/2/2020 from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268221760_Preventing -subs
tance_abus e_among_street_children_in_India_A_literature_review
Tucker, R. L., Shepard, J., & Hurst, J. (1986). Training school
counselors to work with students with handicapping conditions.
Counselor Education and Supervision, 26, 56-60.
Tarver Behring, S., Spagna, M. E., & Sullivan, J. (1998). School
counselors and full inclusion for children with spe cial needs.
Professional School Counselor, 1, 51-56.
WHO as cited in Csikszentmihalyi . M (2020). Adolescence.
Encyclopedia Britinnica. Retrieved online on 12/2/2020 from
https://www.britanni
*****
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5
PRACTICAL WORK
Unit Structure
Practical Work - 1
Meaning of Standardized Test
Meaning of Standardized Intelligence Test
Meaning of Standardized Attitudinal Scale
Meaning of Standardized Achievement Test
Administration of a Standardized Test
Sample of a Report on Administration of a Standardized Test
Practical Work – 2
Meaning of Career Counseling Session
One’s Own Career Decision Making Process
Format of a Report on a Career Counseling Session and One’s
Own Career Decision Making Process (YOU may include some
other points in the report as per the counselor apart from those
mentioned)
Practical Work – 1: To submit a complete report on being familiarized
with the administration of a standardized intelligence test, an attitudin al
scale and an achievement test.
Meaning of Standardized Test
Standardized test is tool of assessment that is used to administer in the
same way that enables to compare the scores across all the test -takers. It
means that the students or the test -takers are expected to respond to the
same questions, common instructions and guidelines, fixed time limits and
the scoring of the tests are based on certain set criteria. It is developed by
an expert/s.
Meaning of Standardized Intelligence Test
Standardized Intelligence Test is a standardized test specifically designed
for assessment and evaluation of human intelligence. Some commonly
used standardized intelligence tests are St anford -Binet IQ test, Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS).
Meaning of Standardized Attitudinal Scale
Standardized Attitudinal Scale is a standardized test specifically designed
to measure attitude o f an individual towards a particular concept. It is
believed that the first attitude scale was first developed by Louis Leon
Thurstone in 1928 to measure attitudes towards religion. A standardized munotes.in
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attitude scale consists of items or statements related to a particular issue or
concept. Every item or statement is assigned with a numerical value. The
numerical value indicates how unfavorable or favorable the statement is to
the respondent. Scores assigned to each and every item or statement is
checked and calc ulated and a mean score is computed that indicates the
respondent’s attitude.
Meaning of Standardized Achievement Test
Standardized Achievement Test is a standardized test specifically designed
and constructed for the assessment and evaluation of the stud ent or the
test-takers achievement with respect to the classroom instruction provided
by a teacher in the school for a particular subject. Standardized
achievement test are constructed by experts with the guidance and
assistance of curriculum designers, te achers and the school administrators.
The main objective of such test is to determine the student’s performance
level in relation to the performance level of other students of the similar
age group and same standard.
Administration of a Standardized Test
Administration of a standardized test needs to be done very carefully and
with utmost care in order to get the correct result and outcome of a test.
The best way to safeguard against any error in the administration of a test
is to follow the guidelines and instructions as per the directions given in
the test. At times, it is observed that the researcher who is administering
the test helps the respondents who are slow to get the test completed
quickly. Such act by the administrator or the researcher violates the
standardized procedure of administration of a standardized test. It is called
a standardized test as the administration and scoring procedures are same
for all the respondents. Therefore, the researcher or the administrator of a
standardized test must follow all the instructions and guidelines as per the
directions mentioned in the standardized test.
Sample of a Report on Administration of a Standardized Test
The present report is based on the administration of a standardized
achievement testing tool (Mother Tongue Test by Shrivastava) on
secondary school students from Greater Mumbai region. Collection of data
for a research by doing the following steps or points mentioned below
shall ensure a more reliable and generalizable result of the study.
Admi nistrators General Preparation:
o Understands and becomes familiar with the achievement testing tool
herself/himself.
o Reads the test manual, if any, and takes the test, self before
administering it to the respondents.
o Decides on providing adequate and sufficient time to the test -
takers/respondents/students to answer/attempt/fill the achievement
testing tool. munotes.in
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o Checks for basic error in the tool, if any.
o Writes clearly all the instructions on the tool in simple language as per
the research needs.
o Reviews t he specific directions and procedures, if any, one last time
immediately before the test begins.
o Be ready with the appropriate number of tools and keeps few extra
copies of the tool in case of any emergency if the need arises.
Administrators Pre -Test Rol e:
Administrator makes required changes in seating arrangements, if
permissible, as per the need of the research.
Administrator provides comfortable testing environment i.e. cohesive
classroom with minimized distractions.
Administrator provides readable an d understandable testing materials
to the respondents.
Administrators During -Test Role:
Administrators Role:
Establishes a good, not being a friend, but a friendly relationship with
the respondents.
Behaves authoritatively, objectively and politely with the respondents.
Dresses appropriately and carries good mannerism in behavior and
gestures.
Motivates the respondents by clarifying their doubts with respect to
the meaning of any statement in the tool.
Encourages at regular intervals to respond to all the statements and
not to leave any statement unattempted or blank.
Never forces the respondent to do anything against their will.
Remains alert all the time to avoid cheating or peer influence or
disturbances in any form.
Maintains a calm and composed behavi or with the respondents and
maintains discipline in the classroom.
Explains the statements to the students in local language, if required.
Remains pro -active to deal with any unforeseen circumstance that
may arise due to any reason.
Answers all the questio ns reasonably related to the achievement
testing tool.
Administrators Instruction:
Ethically, the administrator informs the respondents about the tool and
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legally, (permission already take n from the respected principal to
collect the data from the students).
Instructs the respondent to return all the tools as soon as the test is
over.
Ensures all the respondents are given the proper instructions.
Responsibly ensures that all the respondents follow the instructions
correctly.
Instructions mentioned in the tool must be read aloud, slow at pace
and in easy to understand tone.
Administrators Post -Test Role:
Collects the achievement testing tool from all the students carefully.
While collecting the achievement testing tool the administrator makes
sure that students have not left any statement/item/question blank or
unanswered, if so, she/he returns the tool and ask the particular
student to answer it and return.
After the tool is collected, admin istrator returns the classroom, the
seating arrangements, etc. as it was before.
Administrators Role after Scoring/Study: After the scoring,
administrator provides the test score information, its interpretations (as per
the need) to the students, teachers , parents or curriculum developer in
simple language.
(Note : a) There exist some factors that an administrator cannot control
that may influence the scores or the result of the study that are anxiety
level and motivation level of the respondents, anxiety related to a
particular subject or topic on which the achievement test is being
conducted.
b) As we know there exist several factors that affect the test scores other
than ability of the respondents, the administrator seek to standardize all
the aspects o f the test under her/his control to minimize variability due to
uncontrollable factors. )
Practical Work – 2: To submit a complete report on attending a career
counseling session and following it, one’s own c areer decision making
process.
Meaning of Career Counseling Session
Career counseling session means a gathering or an assembly where a
career expert explains the significance of career guidance and its ways and
means of selecting a particular career in life to the students. Career
couns eling is the need of the hour because we may have employees but
they may not be employable. Career counseling prepares employees with
employability skills. Generally, students are confused between their munotes.in
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various interests; hence, majority of the counselors prefer psychometric
tests to analyze interests of students as these tests help students to figure
out their capabilities towards each of their interest. It is an effort to guide
students, especially standard tenth, for their selection of the stream of
academics with the available career options as per their interest levels.
One’s Own Career Decision Making Process :
Career counseling helps the students in their decision making process with
respect to their future career in the following manner:
Students wou ld be able to know their interests and aptitude.
Students would be able to know their weaknesses and strengths.
Students would be able to make a choice of stream for education after
standard tenth.
Students would be able to know the career options availabl e as per the
academic choice.
Students would be able to know the career options available as per
their interests.
Students would be able to decide back -up career options if they decide
to change their stream of choice in future.
All these can happen only with proper guidance about rightful career
options available as per their interest and different education stream of the
student.
Format of a Report on a Career Counseling Session and One’s
Own Career Decision Making Process (YOU may include some
other points in the report as per the counselor apart from those
mentioned)
A career counseling session was conducted by Mr. ABC, Mumbai for
students who has appeared for the board exams and waiting for their
results. The following is a rep ort on a Career Counseling Session and
One’s Own Career Decision Making Process.
Path to Success: The very first and foremost of all was to understand the
significance of Career Counseling. It is the pivotal part in a student’s
journey. The career counse lor said, “I would like to present a perfect
roadmap for you and based on which you can achieve your goals”.
Generally career counseling gives right direction to the student and also
advises parents to take up progressive decisions. The choice of career
should be based on the interest and aptitude of the student.
Building Awareness: Career counselor acts as a teacher and a motivator,
thus, building awareness about different career fields and prospects add on
to student’s career decision making process. The counselor also listed
down the variety of career options ranging from traditio nal courses such as munotes.in
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medicine and engineering to modern ones such as art-director, film-maker
and graphic -designing.
Important Step: The first step towards successful career option is to get a
comprehensive view of the subjects and the counselor gave a
comprehensive view of the subjects. In order to get a clear picture that
what all career options are associated with which stream of
education. Then he urged the students to set a priority order, which
includes the first preferred and second preferred option s along with several
backup plans.
Means of Assessments: The counselor said if any student goes in for
career counseling, as a best practice, the student shall be put on a
psychometric assessment to dig deeper into their personality. The
counselor explain ed about the psychometric test and its assessment. This
way, the counselor comes to know about the student’s abilities and
interests. The counselor said that there are many psychometric assessment
plugins that enables them to run assessments from their platform. Once the
results of the assessment are out, they give clarity and offer expert
guidance accordingly to the students.
Suggesting Apt Career Choices: The next step was to provide with ample
choices based on the student’s personality assessment. The counselor also
said that they shall link the student’s attributes to the available career
options in order to create a personalized roadmap.
Education after School: After school life, the most important question
that comes to a student’s mind is ‘college’? After identifying the college in
which you wish to take admission, you must also list back up options of
the colleges. The career counselor said that they advise on the ways and
means to crack entrance examinations and the need for building academic
profile. This is because, recently, many national and global institutions
demands for a statement of purpose and portfolio based on the course
selected. This makes it necessary to have and academic profile as it
contains all the requisite attributes for a college-ready profile.
Profile -Making and Interviews: If a college emphasizes more on building
a portfolio, career counselors do guide the students to work towards it.
Along with it they also give counseling for interview guidance, statement
of purpose, etc. Their attempt is to offer best personalized framework to
students of roadmap towards success. They do this by a keen
understanding of the student profile over multiple interaction sessions.
Utmost care is given in keeping an unbiased approach and placing students
in a better position for decision making process in choosing one’s own
career.
Concluding Remarks : It is important on the part of parents to discuss with
their children about career planning right from standard tenth. At this level
only a particular stream could be followed and then onwards career munotes.in
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options will be limited to their choice of the stream o nly. The stream of
choice must be dependent on student’s interest and career planning and
interests.
Q&A: Finally, the career counselor confidently answered the questions
raised by students and parents and clarified their doubts with respect to
their care er path. Therefore, for career counseling, it is always better for a
student to take one-on-one sessions to discuss various factors affecting
choices with respect to the prospects of the future.
One’s Own Career Decision Making Process :
After attending the career counseling session it made it very clear to
‘Student A’ the path to success. Career counseling created awareness in
‘Student A’ with respect to the apt choices of career options available
according to her interest and parents ability to continue for her education.
Career counseling session helped ‘Student A’ in the decision making
process with respect to decide about her future career in the following
manner:
Now, ‘Student A’ was aware of her interests and aptitude.
Now, ‘Student A’ was aware of her weaknesses and strengths.
Now, ‘Student A’ was able to make a choice of stream for education
after standard tenth.
Now, ‘Student A’ was able to know the career options available as per
the academic choice.
Now, ‘Student A’ was able to know the career o ptions available as per
her interests.
Now, ‘Student A’ was able to decide back -up career options if she
decided to change her stream of choice in future.
Therefore, now, ‘Student A’ it made it clear to her that her interest and
aptitude is in humanities and inter -disciplinary subjects.
‘Student A’ knew that she was not confident in mathematical formulas and
scientific terminologies rather she was very much strong in social
sciences.
Thus, ‘Student A’ decided to choose ‘Arts’ as a stream of education. By
now, ‘Student A’ was aware that by choosing ‘Arts’ she can be a
Historian, Geographer, Economist, Political Scientist, Psychologist,
Philologist (one who studies literature), etc.
Now, ‘Student A’ decided to do her master in History after five years a s
she aspires to be a Historian.
‘Student A’ was also aware if in case, during her college years she re -think
about her career options, with the same field or stream of education she
can choose to be an Geographer, Economist, Psychologist, Philologist, et c. munotes.in
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All these can happen only with proper guidance about rightful career
options available as per their interest and different education stream of the
student. Hence, career counseling should be done in the school itself for
standard tenth because that is t he time where students tend to choose the
stream of education after tenth. This shall helpful to the students to
beforehand, decide the specialization, also, they can have back -up plans
for switching career options right away with proper guidance and
couns eling.
*****
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